Crystal Growth and Nonlinear Optics

Crystal Growth and Nonlinear Optics CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO CRYSTAL GROWTH AND NONLINEAR OPTICS 1.1  INTRODUCTION Crystal growth is regarded as an ancient subject, owing to the fact that the crystallization of salt and sugar were known to the ancient Indian and Chinese civilizations. The subject of crystal growth was treated as part of crystallography and never had an independent identity until the last century. It has a long history of evolution from â€Å"a substance potting art† to a science in its own right which has accelerated by the invention of transistor in 1948, and the subsequent need for high purity semiconductor single crystals. Crystals are the unacknowledged pillars of modern technology. The fundamentals of crystal growth was entirely bestowed upon the morphological studies of the naturally occurring crystals. Thus began the scientific approach for this subject during the seventeenth century by Kepler, followed by quite a few others like Nicolous Steno, Descartes, Bartholinus, etc. This type of morphological study slowly led to the understanding of the atomistic process of crystal growth. Recent bursting research on nanostructured materials depend on the crystal growth theory and technology. In the early twentieth century, the crystal growth evolved as a separate branch of science and several theories from Kossel, Donnay-Harker, Volmer and Burton, Cabrera and Frank (BCF) were proposed. Although science of crystal growth originated through the explanations of Nicolous Steno in 1669, the actual impetus to this field began after the BCF theory was formulated and also when there was a great demand for crystals during World War II. Crystal growth plays an important role in material science and engineering. It is an interdisciplinary subject of physics and chemistry. Initially the natural crystals were adored as gems and museum pieces. Later, a transition of crystals has occurred from museum to technology which stimulated crystal grower community to produce large crystals artificially. In the recent scientific era, the utility of crystals has been extended to novel devices such as nonlinear optical and piezoelectric devices. Atomic arrangement with periodicity in three dimensional pattern at equally repeated distances are called single crystals. The preparation of single crystal is more difficult than polycrystalline material and extra effort is justified because of outstanding properties of single crystals (Laudise 1970). The single crystal growth has prominent role in the present era because of rapid technical and scientific advancement. The application of crystals has unbounded limits because of its special optical and electrical properties over noncrystalline material. This means that the new crystals have to be grown and fabricated in order to assess their device properties. The main parameters which involve in crystal growth are nucleation, growth rate, stability, crystalline defects, compositional inhomogeneity and thermodynamics of the source of liquid. The evolution in the crystal growth requires not only scientific understanding, but also the driving force of applied technology which so often provides a significant influence in highlighting the lack of scientific knowledge and need for a more refined evolution of science and indeed the development of new concepts. The studies on the growth and physical properties of single crystals of amino acids and their compounds are of great interest because they possess properties such as piezoelectricity, pyroelectricity and possibly ferroelectricity. In the recent century, the development of science in many areas has been achieved through the growth of single crystals. The single crystals designed for producing second harmonic generation (SHG) received consistent attention for applications in the field of telecommunication, optical information processing, laser remote sensing and colour displays. 1.2  KINETICS OF CRYSTAL GROWTH Crystals are solid substances in general which may be obtained from solid, liquid or vapour phase. Except for solid phase, all other phases yield crystals with developed faces, which represent the crystal medium interface during the development of a crystal from the growth medium. Subsequently, the crystal faces contain information about the nature of the interfaces as well as about the phenomena taking place at the interface. In solid phase growth, some grains grow larger at the expense of others and the interface mainly concave with respect to the growing grain and lies in the interior of the bulk mass. In melt growth, the interface is forced to take the shape of the isotherm inside the crucible containing the melt. However, in both cases, a free development of the faces is rarely encountered. It is also possible to obtain valuable information about the growth processes by using suitable methods. Elementary processes involved in the development of the micromorphology of as grown surfaces of bulk single crystal and epitaxial layers, and of evaporated and etched surfaces under different experimental conditions are essentially similar irrespective of the type of a material. When a crystal nucleus attains a critical size, then it grows into crystal of macroscopic dimension with well developed faces. Several theories have been proposed to explain the mechanism of crystal growth. They are: Surface energy theory, Adsorption layer theory and Diffusion theory. The surface energy theory states that the growing crystal assumes a shape, which has a minimum surface energy. According to adsorption layer theory, a molecule arriving at a crystal surface from the bulk of the supersaturated solution or super cooled melt loses a part of its latent heat. All molecules similar to this move along the surface and join together to form a small two dimensional nucleus due to inelastic collision. Bravious proposed that the growth rate of a crystal face depends on reticular densities of a lattice point of that face. The surface energy is the least when the face possesses the greatest reticular density. The attachment energy is due to Vander Waals force in the case of homopolar crystals and it is due to electrostatic forces in the case of ionic crystals. According to the diffusion theory matter is deposited continuously on a crystal phase at the rate proportional to the difference in concentration between the point of deposition and the bulk of the solution. In diffusion theory, the molecules in contact with the crystal surface are adsorbed quickly. A concentration gradient is thus produced between the bulk of the solution and the growing crystal surface. The mass transfer from the bulk of the solution to the surface involves molecular diffusion. In general, in any crystal growth process, the following steps are involved: (i) Generation of reactants (ii) Transport of reactants to the growth surface (iii) Adsorption at the growth surface (iv) Nucleation (v) Growth and (vi) Removal of unwanted reaction products from the growth surface 1.2.1  Solution, Solubility and Super Solubility A solution is a homogeneous mixture of a solute in a solvent. Solute is a component, which is present in a smaller quantity. For a given solute, there may be different solvents. The solvent is chosen taking into account of the following factors to grow crystals from solution: (i) Good solubility for the given solute (ii) Good temperature coefficient of solute solubility Less viscosity (iv) Less volatility (v) Less corrosion and non toxicity (vi) Low vapour pressure and (vii) Cost advantage Solubility of the material in a solvent decides the amount of the material, which is available for the growth and hence defines the total size limit. Solubility gradient is another important parameter, which dictates the growth procedure. If the solubility gradient is very small, slow evaporation of the solvent is the best option for crystal growth in order to maintain a constant supersaturation in the solution. Growth of crystals from solution is mainly a diffusion-controlled process. The medium must be viscous enough to enable faster transference of the growth units from the bulk solution by diffusion. Hence, a solvent with less viscosity is preferable. Supersaturation is an important parameter for the solution growth process. The crystal grows by the access of the solute in the solution where the degree of supersaturation is maintained. The solubility data at various temperatures are essential to determine the level of supersaturation. Hence, the solubility of the solute in the ch osen solvent must be determined before starting the growth process. The relationship between the equilibrium concentrations as a function of temperature is represented by the solubility diagram in Figure 1.1 which is known as temperature-concentration diagram. Miers carried out extensive research in the relationship between supersaturation and spontaneous crystallization. The lower continuous line is the normal solubility curve for the salt concerned. Temperature and concentration at which spontaneous crystallization occurs are represented by the upper broken curve, generally referred to as the supersolubility curve. The whole concentration-temperature field is separated by the saturated solution line (solubility curve) into two regions, unsaturated and supersaturated solutions. Saturated solutions are those mixtures, which can retain their equilibrium indefinitely in contact with the solid phase with respect to which they are saturated. The solubility of most substances increase with temperature (the temperature coefficient of the solubility is posi tive) and crystals can be grown only from supersaturated solutions, which contain an excess of the solute above the equilibrium value. The temperature-concentration diagram is divided into three regions, which are termed as region I, II and III respectively. Figure 1.1 Miers solubility curve (i)The stable (undersaturated) zone where crystallization is not possible (Region I). (ii)The region II is a metastable zone, between the solubility and supersolubility curves, where spontaneous crystallization is improbable. However, if a seed crystal is placed in metastable solution, growth would occur on it. (iii)The region III is an unstable or labile (supersaturation) zone, where spontaneous crystallization is more probable. If the solution whose concentration and temperature represented by point A in the Figure. 1.1, is cooled without loss of solvent (Line ABC) spontaneous crystallization cannot occur until conditions represented by point C are reached. At this point, crystallization is spontaneous. Further cooling to some point D will produce spurious nucleation. The evaporation of solvent from the solution results in supersaturation. The line AB’C’ represents an operation carried out at constant temperature. Penetration beyond the supersolubility curve into the labile zone rarely happens, as the surface from which evaporation takes place is usually supersaturated to a greater degree than the bulk of solution. Crystals, which appear on this surface eventually fall into the solution and seed in it. In practice, a combination of cooling and evaporation as represented by the line AB†C† is also adopted. 1.2.2  Expression for Supersaturation In order to grow crystals, the solution must be supersaturated. Supersaturation is the driving force, which governs the rate of crystal growth. The supersaturation of a system may be expressed in number of ways. The basic units of concentration as well as temperature must be specified. The degree of supersaturation of a solution is defined using the concept of absolute supersaturation (1.1) where C is the concentration of the dissolved substance at a given moment and Co is its solubility limit. The degree of supersaturation can also be defined as the relative supersaturation, which is given by (1.2) or as the coefficient of supersaturation. (1.3) The quantities ÃŽ ±, ÃŽ ² and à Ã¢â‚¬Å" are interrelated (Khamshii 1969) 1.3  NUCLEATION In a supersaturated or super cooled system, few atoms or molecules join together and a change in energy takes place during the formation of clusters. The cluster of atoms or molecules is called embryo. An embryo may grow or disintegrate and disappear completely. If the embryo grows to a particular size, critical size known as critical nucleus, then there is a tendency for the nucleus to grow. Thus, nucleation is an important phenomenon in crystal growth and is the precursor of crystal growth and of the overall crystallization process. The formation of stable nucleus occurs only by the addition of a number of molecules (A1) until a critical cluster is formed. In general A n-1 + A 1 → A n (Critical) (1.4) Any further addition to the critical nucleus results in nucleation followed by growth. Once these nucleus grow beyond a certain size, they become stable under the average condition of supersaturation of the solution. Further, the creation of a new phase in the homogeneous solution demands for the expenditure of certain quantity of energy. Once embryos achieve this critical size there is a high probability that they will grow, relatively unhindered, to macroscopic size. 1.3.1  Types of Nucleation Nucleation may occur spontaneously or may be induced artificially. These two cases are frequently referred to as homogeneous and heterogeneous nucleation respectively. The term primary will be reserved for both the cases of nucleation in the systems that do not contain crystalline matter. On the other hand, the nucleus is often generated in the vicinity of crystals presented in the supersaturated system. This phenomenon is referred to as secondary nucleation. Figure 1.2 shows the classification of nucleation. The spontaneous formation of crystalline nucleus in the interior of the parent phase is called homogeneous nucleation. If the nucleus forms heterogeneously around ions, impurity molecules or on dust particles, on surfaces or at structural irrgularities such as dislocations or other imperfections is called heterogeneous nucleation. Figure 1.2 Schematic diagram indicating the classification of nucleation Nucleation can often be induced by external processes like agitation, friction, mechanical shock, electromagnetic fields, extreme pressure, ultraviolet, X-rays, ÃŽ ³Ã¢â‚¬â€œ rays, sonic and ultrasonic radiation and so on (Mullin 2001; Laudise 1975; Gilman 1963; Stringfellow 1979; Sangwal 1987; Jancic Grootscholten 1984). 1.3.2  Energy of formation of a nucleus Any isolated droplet of a fluid is most stable when its free energy is maximum and thus its area is minimum. The growth of an embryo or a crystal could be considered as an example of this principle. The total energy of the crystal in equilibrium with its surrounding at constant temperature and pressure would be minimum for a given volume. When a volume free energy per unit volume is considered to be constant ÃŽ £ai ÏÆ'i = minimum (1.5) whereai is area of ith face and ÏÆ'i is surface energy per unit area Thus considering the nucleus to be spherical, the energy of formation of the nucleus is determined. 1.3.3  Energy of Formation of Spherical Nucleus The formation of a droplet nucleus due to supersaturation of vapour demands the expenditure of a certain quantity of energy in the creation of new phase. Therefore the total free energy change associated with the formation of homogeneous nucleation may be considered as follows. Let ΔG be the overall excess free energy of the embryo between the two phases. Since the volume and surface free energies, the total free energy associated with the process can be written as ΔG = ΔG S + ΔG V (1.6) where ΔGS is the surface free energy change and ΔGV is the volume free energy change. For a spherical nucleus of radius r, ΔG = Ï€r3 ΔG V + 4 Ï€r2ÃŽ ³ (1.7) The first term expresses the formation of the new surface and the second term expresses the difference in the chemical potential between the crystalline phase and the surrounding mother liquid. Where ÃŽ ³ is the interfacial tension and ΔGv is the free energy change per unit volume, which is a negative quantity, r the radius of the nucleus. Since the surface free energy increases with r2 and volume free energy decreases with r3, the total net free energy change increases with increase in size and attains a critical value after which it decreases. The size corresponding to the maximum free energy change is called critical nucleus.

Has Globalisation Destroyed the Power of the Modern State? Essay

There is not doubt that globalisation is one of the buzzwords of the twenty first century, radically transforming international relations around the world, and directly or indirectly altering the way we view global politics, but how much has it affected nation states and their power? Globalisation is a complex and abstract term which has been given many definitions and meanings. For the purpose of this essay, I shall use a single definition which is closest to what I think globalisation is, and when referred to in the essay, this is what is meant. Heywood (2011) states that â€Å"Globalization is the emergence of a complex web of interconnectedness that means that our lives are increasingly shaped by events that occur, and decisions that are made, at a great distance from us.† The causes of this interconnectedness can be broken down into three engines of globalisation; Cultural, Political and Economic. Cultural globalisation is facilitated by technological advances in communic ations and especially the internet. This enables a large amount of the developed worlds population instant access to vast amounts of information unaffected by physical borders (except when censorship is in place), which in turn is making the world more culturally homogeneous. The rise of multinational actors like transnational corporations (TNC’s (for example Sony, Nestlà © and Nike)), non governmental organisations (NGO’s (for example Greenpeace, Oxfam and Amnesty International)) and other international organisations (eg; UN, EU and NATO) means that there are more authoritative actors on the world stage, as opposed to historically, states being the only predominant actor. Globalisation means that the economic market is now truly global, as money can be shifted worldwide in an instant. This has facilitated businesses to operate in different countries to their home country to take advantage of cheaper labour costs, local resources and other factors, which mean goods are now manufactured on a global scale. All these factors mean that geographical distance and territorial borders are becoming â€Å"less significant† (Heywood 2011). Since the creation of the modern idea of statehood after the Peace of Westphalia (1648), the nation state has been vastly the most predominant actor on the world stage. Sovereignty allowed states to have sole power over what happened within their own borders, and disputes between states usually brought about war. The classic definition of a state as outlined in the Montevideo Convention has four features: 1) A defined territory. 2) A permanent population. 3) An effective government. 4) The capacity to enter into relations with other states.

Getting the Best Essay Topics on Domestic Violence

Getting the Best Essay Topics on Domestic Violence Domestic violence is thought to be a widespread problem but it's also among the most under-reported crimes, which makes it troublesome to provide a realistic estimate of the amount of incidents. It is a type of abuse. It is among the serious social problems that should not be ignored. It is most commonly referred to as Spousal Abuse. Female immigrants or refugees face lots of the exact challenges as other abused ladies. Building prisons and increasing incarceration isn't the only remedy to the issue of violence. A Socio-Economic Crisis Domestic violence against women isn't a person or family issue. Ideas, Formulas and Shortcuts for Essay Topics on Domestic Violence Still, every one of them would show up in the overall list. Typically, it takes as many as 2 hours of time to comb through dozens of sites until you discover something exciting to write about. Our site features custom writing help and editing help. There are an infinite number of websites that have sample papers on a wide selection of topic. If you already know the guidelines you'll have to follow, try and stay with it. Standard policy formation has ever centered on the women since they've been historically exposed to the matter of domestic violence. The policy is going to be implemented by the USA department of health and human services. I n the standard context, the policies are confined to the women. Others, however, appear to be relatively immune' to detrimental short-term consequences. Distinct kinds of physicians take part in intervening for the victims. Providing superior MH and wellness services to children who witness domestic violence, in actuality, is among the best approaches to reducing the upcoming prevalence of violence. The communities are predicted to support the policy since it's developed for the mutual advantage of all of the members. The Nuiances of Essay Topics on Domestic Violence When you compose an excellent essay, you need to pay exclusive attention to its structure. If you would like to base your doctoral project on the topic of domestic violence, you should choose a great topic for your work. The format and structure of the essay will also vary based on the kind of paper you're likely to write. As soon as you have mastered the format of 3 paragraphs it's possible to move to the five paragraphs. It's great because the subject of your graduate paper ought to be appealing for you in the very first location. You must be proficient in the topic, have an overall idea about the chosen issue and can get the best arguments to show your thesis. For example, your thesis might handle a specific kind of injury. Failing to have a really awesome thesis only means you are not going to have an excellent domestic violence paper. A Startling Fact about Essay Topics on Domestic Violence Uncovered It is very important that you create an outstanding perspective on your topic you may support and defend. The development of one approach to the problem is called for to be able to curb the hidden matter. You need to be able to receive enough info to research your dissertation idea. Scholarship essay examples are supplied for insight on the best way to write a scholarship essay. You must also provide your landlord a copy of a security program, which you'll be able to create with the assista nce of your community domestic violence or sexual assault agency. Ally you need to do is to correctly submit your order instructions and create the payment. The camping educates the women about how to manage a number of the sexual assault incidences that could possibly be classified as rapes like date rape and statutory rape. New Questions About Essay Topics on Domestic Violence Decide whether it's reasonable, to provide the offender yet another chance. The abuser would control the sort of people that you hang around with, even to the extent they won't want to have the individual hanging or even talking to your own friends and family members. Sexual abuse is very hard to detect due to its intimate nature. For ladies, escaping an abusive relationship is quite hard. How the society or a specific community enables the practice doesn't make it right. The suppression of the real details of how their partners are abusing them is a little price which they have to pay to keep the social perspective that the remainder of the community has about them. However good a policy is, the real benefits will be contingent on how the policy educators communicate it. The use of the media in making everybody aware of the issue. Where to Find Essay Topics on Domestic Violence It is normal for the victim for less money as the abuse remains. Physical abuse may also include behaviors like denying the casualty of health care when needed, depriving the victim of sleep or other functions essential to live. Abuse as a young child, was a casualty of abuse for a kid, abused former partners and unemployed or underemployed. Psychological abuse, or behavior that is directed at intimidating and persecuting an individual, is also regarded to be a type of domestic violence the moment it takes place in the family. To safeguard your own well being you would need to leave. Research hypothesis The significant objective of the research is to establish the source of gun violence in American schools and also discover the point to which tighter gun control measures can help to manage the problem. It's quite simple to use together with self explanatory. The best alternative for folks who suffer from any sort of domestic violence is to break the relationship.

The Effects Of Obesity On The Health Organization - 905 Words

Being out of the healthy weight range is called obesity or overweight, which according to The World Health Organization, WHO, (2010 ) is measured by body mass index (BMI), which is the weight of the body over the height squared. People who have a BMI over 25 kg/m^(-2) are considered overweight, while people who have a BMI over 30 kg/m^(-2) are considered obese. Obesity can be the main cause of many cardiovascular diseases. This severe issue can be caused by many factors, and even though there are some unpreventable causes like genetics, this essay is going to focus on some of preventable causes only. In the following paragraphs, a brief information of obesity effects are to be presented, and three causes are going to presented along with solutions for each cause. The three causes of obesity are some biological enhanced food, lack of physical activity, and regular consumption of fast food. Lastly, recommendations will be given in order to reduce obesity or maintain a healthy BMI . Obesity is considered a deadly disease if not cured as it can cause some other terminal diseases like cancer, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases as more than 200,000 deaths in the UK annually were caused due to obesity surpassing cancer deaths, which is only around 150,000 deaths, S. Allender and M. Rayner (2007). In addition, obesity is guilty of 8% to 15% loss of disability adjusted life years (DALYs) in Europe and North America. Firstly, some biological enhanced food is a one cause ofShow MoreRelatedChildhood Obesity Analysis1473 Words   |  6 PagesParents Child Caretakers Obesity in America is literally a growing problem, affecting every age group. Children are the most venerable group because they have no control over where they have dinner or how often they have fast food. Parents and guardians make decisions about food and are responsible for the health of children. Childhood obesity has more than doubled in the last twenty years. 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Throughout This Semester I Have Learned A Lot From Family

Throughout this semester I have learned a lot from Family Relationships and Gender Roles. Although I have been fortunate to have very healthy and happy relationships in my life there is one past relationship I was a part of that was very toxic. It was with my ex-boyfriend of two years. Although the relationship ended over a year ago I feel as if the material we have discussed in class has in a way, provided some final closure for me. There have been many times in class when I have thought â€Å"Wow! Now, I can understand why that relationship wasn’t successful.† I can also admit that I have learned more about myself and the things I may have done that hindered the relationship. In order to analyze the past relationship, I will give some†¦show more content†¦Even looking back on the relationship I still can confidently say we communicated very well in the early stages of the relationship. I felt comfortable communicating with him about small conflicts or any of my wants and needs and I truly believe he felt the same way. Our communication didn’t seem to be an issue until after the first cheating incident. I think that this is because up until the cheating incident I had no reason to suspect he was not telling me things and I never felt a secretive or flighty vibe from him. After being cheated on I can admit that my communication skills with him started to change. Within one day everything had changed. I had not fallen out of love but instead of a sincere love it felt more like a constant sting to the heart whenever I thought of what he had done to me. I found myself bouncing back in forth between emotions of extreme hurt, anger, and self pity. Dr. Thompson talked to the class about the Four Horseman which are danger signals in a relationship. I realized that I could identify each of these danger signals within my past relationship. 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My entire life it has been something that has hindered me from getting outside of my comfort zone to better myself. So I started from there and had to figure out a way to measure my stresses in numbe rs. I wasn’t sure how I was supposed to mathematically lay out what gives meRead MoreWhy I Should Be Selected As An Orientation Coordinator1600 Words   |  7 Pagesreasons why I believe I should be selected as an Orientation Coordinator. As a graduate of the University of Houston, I have a wealth of knowledge on topics like on-campus resources, school traditions, and off campus life. In addition, as an individual who is involved in multiple organizations, I could provide new students with information on organization of their interest and direct them to other who may have more information on the matter. During our orientation, one of the biggest things I noticed

Behavioral and Social/Cognitive Approaches to Forming Habits Free Essays

Habit as defined in Webster’s as a: a behavior pattern acquired by frequent repetition or physiologic exposure that shows itself in regularity or increased facility of performance b : an acquired mode of behavior that has become nearly or completely involuntary (Merriam-Webster Dictionary Online, 2011). Behavior is the manner of conducting oneself or anything that an organism does involving action and response to stimulation. In everyday life habits are formed and intertwined with ones behavior. We will write a custom essay sample on Behavioral and Social/Cognitive Approaches to Forming Habits or any similar topic only for you Order Now People are often associated with the way they behave based on the environment they come from and the habits they develop from that environment. Behavioral Theorists believe learning experiences as the development of our personality. During these developmental years the environment has the greatest influence on the personality. This influence is reinforced by positive or negative rewards. Classic conditioning explains many behavioral reaction patterns. When a person receives positive reinforcement of a behavior (reward), they develop this behavior as part of their own. A person will continue to perform a certain action because of the reward at the end of the action. An Actor receives a Grammy for outstanding performance. That actor will try to perform this action again in the next movie they are in. On the other hand, negative reinforcement (punishment) will elicit a response to not perform that behavior again. (Friedman Schustack, 2009). If you put your finger in an electric socket the electric shock will influence you not to perform this habit again. John B. Watson was instrumental in the development of the behavioral learning approach. Watson believed in the experimental method and if psychology were to be a science, then only the observable behavior was a reasonable matter of science (Friedman Schustack, 2009). He looked at obvious behaviors that could be learned and controlled by the therapist. During his experiments Watson used animals and not human subjects. He believed he could get the same results from animals that others did using humans. Traditional behaviorism identifies two basic types of conditioning. Classic conditioning is defined by the repeated exposure of an unconditioned stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response and a neutral stimulus. The developed neutral stimulus can develop the same response as the unconditioned stimulus. B. F. Skinner developed the more radical approach of Operant conditioning. Operant conditioning results when a behavior is followed by reinforcement or punishment (Burger, 2010). Social cognitive personality development has some similarity as behaviorism. Behavioral and Social learning theories consists of four characteristic: Behaviorism, Basic Principles of Conditioning, Social Learning theory, and Social-Cognitive Theory. Behavioral is regarded as â€Å"attitude change, language acquisition, psychotherapy, student-teacher interaction, problem solving, gender roles, and job satisfaction. † Social learning is regarded as â€Å"thoughts, morals, expectancies, and individual insights† (Burger, 2010). Social-Cognitive theory as described by Albert Bandura engages in thinking and symbolic learning from observation. Behaviorism holds that people are conditioned, or trained, to respond in certain ways by rewards and punishments. Bandura suggested that there must be a way that people can learn simply by watching others, thereby removing the need to learn everything by monotonous trial-and-error (Krapp, 2005). People learn by observing others, with the environment, behavior, and cognition all as the chief factors in influencing development. These three factors are not stagnant or self-sufficient; rather, they are all shared. According to social learning theory, modeling influences learning primarily through its informative functions. As the observers in our environment we retain a portion of the modeled behavior, which then serves as a blueprint for the behavior. This type of learning incorporates four components: attention, retention, motor, and motivational processes that help to understand why individuals imitate socially desirable behavior (Krapp, 2005). Habits are developed from childhood into adulthood. Good and bad habits are formed during this time based on behavior and social influences. In today’s society our bad habits are more noticeable than our good ones. We are always trying to correct someone from doing something we would not do or say, yet we do not understand why they behave the way they do. Some families develop household habits that last a lifetime and can be passed from child to child. These childhood habits are hard to break and require years of reconditioning. Some become part of your way of life. In my family one of the many habits I developed or inherited, was to eat eggs with jelly all over them. Yes that is right!! You mix the jelly in with the eggs and that is how they are eaten. My father ate his eggs that way, his father ate eggs the same way and so did my Great Grandfather. I have yet to break this habit. My father reinforced this habit by providing praise and allowing me to try different jellies on my eggs. The more he paid attention to this behavior the more I performed the act. He had no idea he was conditioning me to perform a certain action based on his praise/reward. Until I studied behaviorism I had no idea this was a form of conditioning. This was not something he taught me, this was a behavior I observed as part of my family environment. Once I tried the eggs with jelly, I like the taste and this became part of my habits when eating scrambled eggs. For my children I allow them to have free will and eat what they like and how they like it. My six year old likes ketchup on her broccoli. This is not learned from observation, this is just her. of his is a good example of behavior of the family that influenced one of my habits. While serving in the Military, I developed a social habit that is wide spread in the Army. Using acronyms is a large part of the military language. We use this as part of our social communication. If you do not know or understand the terminology you are not â€Å"Hooah† enough. Some may say that situation is FUBAR (Fouled up Beyond All Recognition). I contribute my behavior more to the social cognitive theories of observation. My behavior has been shaped from observing others around me and taking bits and pieces from each of them and incorporating those behaviors into my personality. To this day I am an observer of others behavior. Good or bad, I have the free will to make a determination on what parts I will use to become part of my personality. This is why I disagree with the behaviorism theorist. I have not received reward or punishment for my behavior. Good, bad, or indifferent, my personality has not been affected by treating me like a lab rat and performing behavior changing experiments on me. I believe some personalities do need operant conditioning, mine is just not one of them. For those personalities developed from socially unacceptable environments, some form of conditioning is necessary to develop a socially acceptable behavior. The first course of action is to take them out of the environment and allow them to see a more positive behavior. The saying goes you can take the child out f the country, but you cannot take the country out of the child (country can be substituted with any negative environment). I have worked hard to eat eggs the way it is socially accepted. In public I will eat the way it is expected for you to eat, but this differs from environment to environment. In Germany, boiled eggs are egg more served than scrambled. Thereby I adjust to the environment I am exposed to. At home I can eat the way I want to and enjoy my eggs and jelly. Some habits you just do not want to change. I enjoy the taste of a finely cooked, scrambled egg and grape jelly. How to cite Behavioral and Social/Cognitive Approaches to Forming Habits, Papers

Causes of Teenage Suicide Essay Example For Students

Causes of Teenage Suicide Essay Teenage suicide is one of the major problems in our society nowadays. Parents struggle to hold their children from a rash venture, but they have no idea that every child is an individual with overwhelming feelings, emotions, and thoughts. While there are plenty of argumentative and expository articles on the Internet with explanation and instruction concerning prevention of teen suicide, parents should find a way with their children, be calm and let their children understand that they can trust their parents. Outline1 Introduction: What is teen suicide?2 What are the causes and effects?3 Conclusion Introduction: What is teen suicide? The majority of people does not really know why teens end up falling back on suicide attempts. They know only the information presented by the media. According to mass media, suicide attempts are common among those teens who suffer depression, violence, abuse, any form of bullying and anxiety. However, if people turned to social sciences such as psychology, sociology or anthropology, they would understand that this problem lies deeper than they thought. Teen suicide has different meanings in different societies. People in our society usually think about suicide as the way to escape problems or as the only solution of all the problems that teens face in their adolescent years. But in other societies, as for example in Micronesia, the youth treats the suicide just the same as smoking or another way to express themselves. According to Gladwell, in Micronesia, teenagers like to experiment with the death just as our youngsters with smoking. Boys and girls in that areas think about suicide as some kind of game. They hang themselves or put their heads in a noose just to entertain themselves. Therefore, there is a risk that they will die from anoxaemia, just as our teens would die from lung cancer and other diseases. What are the causes and effects? From the point of view of anthropology, the youth of the First Nations and other indigenous peoples decide to commit suicide not only because of the depression or stress but because of drink or drug abuse, caused by the cultural and societal collapse. These people are no longer able to control their lives because of the immigrants and governmental laws. It decreases the sense of human worth and life in general and increases the rate of teen suicide. When it comes to sociology, the scientists are certain that the origins of the teen suicide among the First Nations youth are traced back to times when the government tried to assimilate indigenous people to Canadian and European ones. The government established facilities that were oriented on integration and assimilation of Aboriginal and non- Aboriginal people. Such a policy has changed and embittered lives of thousands of people causing irreparable harm for the next generations. It has created a sense of inferiority and deprivation of rights among the youth. Such a cultural collapse has evaluated the importance of lives for the indigenous people nowadays and increase the rate of teen suicide. Psychologists, as representatives of one of the social sciences, have their own explanation and understanding of the suicide.   The psychological state of the individual is the most important aspect when it comes to suicide. One of the causes why the Indigenous people choose death can be the fact that they are not able to satisfy their needs when it comes to accommodation, fitting in society and cultural respect. Moreover, they   don’t feel safe and secure in the environment they are living. The lack of understanding, love, relationships, and sense of belonging leads to an emotionally unstable state. Negative thoughts are overwhelming, the feeling of grief and uselessness prevails causing people to think that they lost their identity and death is the only solution. .ud922c3fe1ff797315467a8ea474911ce , .ud922c3fe1ff797315467a8ea474911ce .postImageUrl , .ud922c3fe1ff797315467a8ea474911ce .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ud922c3fe1ff797315467a8ea474911ce , .ud922c3fe1ff797315467a8ea474911ce:hover , .ud922c3fe1ff797315467a8ea474911ce:visited , .ud922c3fe1ff797315467a8ea474911ce:active { border:0!important; } .ud922c3fe1ff797315467a8ea474911ce .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ud922c3fe1ff797315467a8ea474911ce { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ud922c3fe1ff797315467a8ea474911ce:active , .ud922c3fe1ff797315467a8ea474911ce:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ud922c3fe1ff797315467a8ea474911ce .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ud922c3fe1ff797315467a8ea474911ce .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ud922c3fe1ff797315467a8ea474911ce .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ud922c3fe1ff797315467a8ea474911ce .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ud922c3fe1ff797315467a8ea474911ce:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ud922c3fe1ff797315467a8ea474911ce .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ud922c3fe1ff797315467a8ea474911ce .ud922c3fe1ff797315467a8ea474911ce-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ud922c3fe1ff797315467a8ea474911ce:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Evidence and Methodology in Darwin's Origin of the Species EssayIn his book, M. Gladwell stated that the suicide is committed under the influence of the contagious effect. In some countries, the suicide has become the way of showing your identity and individuality. Gladwell claims that as soon as the media started the publication of suicide stories, the suicide rate has rapidly increased. The research has shown that those under the action of contagious effect, died in the same way as the people by whose death they had been influenced. As Gladwell states, the publication of the suicide story where the victim died in car crash resulted in a growing number of such accidents. Conclusion As a conclusion, it is necessary to admit that teenage suicide is an irretrievable loss for families, friends, colleagues, colleges, and schools. The effects that close people suffer after such losses include depression, the feeling of regret and grief. They are no longer able to live lives to the fullest. To prevent such a loss, parents should always be kind to their children and treat them as individuals. Love, respect, care, understanding, and trust are the most important constituents of the upbringing of your child. Provide your children with the right insight of the world and point out the important values in life in order to set them on the right track.