HR Practices Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

HR Practices - Essay Example While the behaviors outlines the HR professional’s attributes that one needs to develop and use through the work, the bands concentrate on describing the transition from one level of professional competence to another, measuring up the contributions and outcomes of the strategic steps used in each level. The map has two core areas which represent the two core professional areas of HR practices. The first one is named, ‘Insights strategies and solutions’ and is placed at the innermost core, while the second one is the outer core of the map and is named, ‘Leading HR’. ‘Insights strategies and solutions’ concentrates on enriching HR practices by providing all the tools and facts that need to be maintained in the development of a viable HR strategy, solutions to address all issues within the strategy, and insights from external and personal experiences to help reach the right combination of strategy, outcome and solutions. These include measuring up employee and customer profiles and prioritizing political, social, and technical relationships and decisions. The ‘Leading HR’ segment concentrates on qualities required to achieve excellent personal and team leading capabilities. The section also identifies the required solutions to delive r performance and add value to HR teams led and manage HR budgets. For both the core professional areas, the Performance and Rewards band can be tested out at band four. For a senior HR professional, the use of performance and rewards strategies would lead to better performance by the junior members of the HR team. The ‘Insights strategies and solutions’ and ‘Leading HR bands are well addressed by senior HR professionals when they use a performance and rewards approach in determining each step. Attracting and retaining a diverse workforce is all about giving your organization the benefit of multi-background employees who are competent enough to understand the dynamics of different markets. Three main

Quality improvement program Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Quality improvement program - Essay Example Normally, not all outpatient clinics are required to pass the Joint Commission Requirements for quality; nevertheless, VSA is necessitated to. Since the time of its launch where it first developed its quality control program until today, the Virginia Surgical Associates remains serious about meeting all Joint Commission Requirements such as the Environment of Care, which pertains to how safe, functional and efficient the environment for patients, staff, and other individuals is in the organization; Infection Prevention and Control: how well the clinic is able to lower down the risk of surgical patients acquiring infection; Rights of Individual, which evaluates the establishment of informed consent, participation in decision-making of patients, and services to respect patient’s rights, etc. (Joint Commission, 2014). But despite VSA’s strong commitment to maximize the quality of its services, it is still bending more attention to quality improvement that includes examinin g rates and complications and lab equipments such as ACT machine that s a point-of-care, blood clotting test used to monitor anticoagulation (Philip et al., 2008). The Virginia Surgical Associates is constantly developing its Quality Improvement Program to address these requisites. While healthcare quality measurement is developing, there are more things to take care of. The complicated environment of the healthcare industry makes quality program monitoring and implementation a lot more difficult. It is important that in revising and monitoring quality program implementation, new quality measures are developed in order to address rising issues within the healthcare industry. 1. Type of Care and Patient Engagement. The quality of the healthcare services can be monitored by the patient engagement with respect to the types of care being administered (Mainz,

Effect of the Local Environment on Bees

Effect of the Local Environment on Bees Local Environment Europe The effect of the local environment on bee abundance and diversity in regions throughout Europe. Bees have an important ecological role; they are insect pollinators providing a crucial service. Without insect pollination human diet would be very different to how we know it now. Declines in pollinators have been reported and by attempting to understand the how the local environment affects bee abundance and diversity it may be possible to prevent any further decline. Samples were collected at six sites across Europe in each site there was a disturbed landscape and a natural landscape and within each of these a hot and a cold area. Samples were collected, pinned and identified to genera and the Halictus measured. Analysis found that there was no significant difference in size between different countries, landscape and temperature. The number of individuals and the number of genera did not significantly differ between temperature, landscape and country however on a smaller country level there were differences in the numbers of individuals and genera at different landscapes. The number of bumblebees was affected by the landscape with more individuals found in the disturbed landscapes; it is possible that due to the foraging ability and feeding preferences that bumblebees are able to gain an advantage in a disturbed landscape. Different genera were found in different regions with high numbers of Panurgus and Panurginus found in Spain and Catalunya. The number of bumblebees was also found to be significantly related to latitude. These differences in composition in different areas could be seriously affected in the face of climate change. The effect of the local environment on bee abundance and diversity in regions throughout Europe. 1: Background and importance â€Å"If the bee disappeared off the surface of the globe then man would only have four years of life left. No more bees, no more pollination, no more plants, no more animals, no more man.† Albert Einstein 1.1: The importance of bees Bees provide the critical ecosystem service of pollination (Kearns et al 1998). Insect pollination is essential for our life as we know it. 84% of crops in the EU depend on insect pollination (Williams 1994) and one third of our diet can be attributed to insect pollination, either directly or indirectly (McGregor 1976). Of the insect pollinators it is bees which provide the most pollination, bees which are highly adapted to flower visitation, have been confirmed to be pollinators for 72.7% of crop species and it is thought they could be responsible for the pollination of another 10.2% (Williams 1994, Roubik 1995). Declines in bees point towards serious consequences for natural ecosystem process and agricultural processes (Biesmeijer et al 2006). The declines being experienced on local and regional scales present a worrying situation with habitat loss, fragmentation, agricultural intensification and pesticide use causing declines in honey bees, solitary bees, wild bees and bumble bees (Steffan-Dewenter et al 2005). The greatest diversity of bees in the world is experienced in arid and semi-arid regions of the world including the Mediterranean regions of Southern Europe (Danforth 2007). Most of the bees in the world are solitary bees (National Research Council of the National Academies 2007) and of the solitary bees the majority of them are resource specialists, oligolectic (Wcislo and Cane 1996). Oligolectics are bee species which collect pollen from one genus or species but can collect nectar from a variety of plants, they are often referred to as specialists. Polylectic bee species are generalists; they can collect pollen from a variety of flowering plants and include the honeybee (Apis) and the bumblebee (Bombus). In theory the risk of extinction is elevated in oligolectic bees as their presence and distribution is limited by just one floral host (Zayed and Packer 2007). Work by Cane et al (2006) into urban habitat fragmentation showed the abundance and richness of oligolectic bees to have declined but not to have declined in the polylectic bees. Due to the important role of bees it is essential to understand the abundance and diversity of bees across the landscape and the local factors that affect them. By understanding the local factors affecting the diversity and abundance of bees it may be possible to effectively manage and conserve bees and help to prevent any further declines in diversity and abundance. 1.2: Landscape Much of the natural habitat in Europe has been lost and the habitats with the highest species richness are the remaining semi-natural areas (Pimentel et al 1992). The impact of disturbance on insect communities is not so extensively studied as the impact on vegetation, on the studies that are available results show that different insect groups respond differently to disturbance (Steffan-Dewenter and Leschke 2003). Study by Steffan-Dewenter and Leschke (2003) on the effect of habitat management and landscape on bees and wasps in orchards in Europe showed that the vegetation was more significantly affected by the management practices than the insects. Bee species richness is correlated with the percentage of grassland in the surrounding landscape (Dauber et al 2003, Hendrickx et al 2007, Steffan-Dewenter et al 2002). The bees in the study by Hendrickx et al (2007) showed not only a decline with distance from semi-natural patches but also a decline with increasing management practices. The other groups in the study experienced increased numbers with proximity to semi-natural habitat but no significant declines with increasing agricultural management. The results for bees can be attributed due to bees having such a strong dependence on floral resources (Tscharntke et al 1998). Low plant diversity with limited floral resources may not to be able to support a high diversity of insects thus resulting in lower insect diversity and the ability to support only the generalist species (Westphal et al 2003). Proximity to floral resources and nesting sites is important as foraging distances can be fairly small. Large bumblebees such as Bombus terrestris can forage distances up to 3000m, as foraging distances are related to body size, smaller bees may only be able to forage a few metres (Westphal et al 2006). In the tropical forests of Costa Rica pasture management and the floral resources showed to have no significant impact on the diversity or abundance of bees, however deforested countryside just metres away from the forest contained a different community composition (Brosi et al 2006). The complexity of landscapes means that the impact of disturbance can vary depending on the frequency, intensity and extent of the disturbance (Samways 2005). Moderate disturbance can actually increase the diversity of the area by opening up areas for colonisation by providing ecological niches and opportunities for rarer species (Caswell 1976, Connell 1978, Petraitis et al 1989). Alternately diversity could be lowered as the dominance of opportunistic species is increased (Margalef 1968). Bees depend on floral resources for nectar and pollen and can only travel certain distances from their nesting site to reach it, both flowers and nests need to be close by. Therefore declining floral resources, and declining suitable nest sites, as experienced in large scale disturbed areas, may result in the declining numbers and diversity of bees. 1.3: Microclimate- temperature The microclimate, the lowest two metres of the atmosphere (Stoutjesdijk and Barkman 1992), is the layer of the atmosphere where the majority of plants and animals live (Unwin and Corbet 1991). The soil surface (or other substance, for example forest or concrete) influences the heat and moisture budget of the surrounding atmosphere producing localised variations in the climatic conditions, for example temperature, windspeed and humidity. The relationship between plant and microclimate is a close one with plants affecting the climatic conditions around them and the microclimate affects the factors controlling the functioning of the plant including the availability of the products required for photosynthesis. Insects benefit from this interaction and due to the close mutalistic relationship between some plant and insect species, for example plants and pollinators, are dependent on a healthy relationship between microclimate and plants. An unsuitable microclimate will lead to the deterioration of plant life and eventual death of the plant and insects dependent on it. 1.4: Insects, temperature and body size In many insects body temperature is essential in order to gain flight. An insect needs to gain enough energy to fly; it needs to raise the thoracic temperature above the temperature of the environment (Bishop and Armbruster 1999) this can be achieved by basking and endothermy (producing heat in the muscles) (Unwin and Corbet 1991). The size of the insect plays a vital role in the ability to heat up and subsequently fly and forage. A study by Casey and Joos (1983) found that the proportion of heat lost from the thorax per time unit decreases as the body mass of the insect increases, therefore larger insects are slower at gaining and loosing heat. Bishop and Armbruster (1999) also concluded that the ability to raise temperature in order to fly increases with body size making bumblebees better thermoregulators than solitary bees. Even when looking at solitary bees larger solitary bees will be better at thermoregulation than smaller solitary bees. Foraging activity can be restricted by thermoregulation factors (Heinrich 1974) and not just over winter. In the summer months foraging at high latitudes and higher temperatures may prove to be difficult for larger insects with solitary bees reaping the floral rewards. Whilst in cooler areas at lower latitudes larger bees, such as bumblebees will have the advantage (Bishop and Armbruster 1999). Tropical bumblebees have been found to be the largest bees, an exception to the rest of the findings by Peat et al (2205). They found that the mean size of bumblebees varies between different climates with colder climates having a larger mean size than those of warmer climates. Size variation of bumblebees within a region was found not to be related to temperature but other factors, possibly to improve colony foraging with different sizes able to visit different flowers (Peat et al 2005). It is not just at different temperatures, different latitudes and different elevations that there are heat constraints on the species present but also a daily sequence. Heinrich (1976) observed bees visiting flower patches and noted the day sequence process. Large insects, such as large bumblebees, are able to achieve a body temperature high enough to fly at a lower temperature than a smaller insect, for example a small solitary bee. This then means that earlier in the day the bumblebee can begin to forage and last longer into the evening when the temperature of the environment begins to fall. However in the midday heat the bumblebee may become overheated and need to retreat and cease flying for a few hours. The small solitary bee although not able to start until later and unable to continue into the evening will be able to cope in the midday heat and continue to forage (Unwin and Corbet 1991). The temperature of the area determines the foraging activity of bees and will influence the bees present in the area. What is under-researched is the effect of very localised temperature has on the bees and size of bees present. 1.5: Climate The temperature of the environment does not only determine the body temperature of the insect but also the geographical range (Gates 1993). Over the past 30years shifts in the abundance and distribution of a variety of species have been witnessed due to climate change (Parmesan and Yohe 2003). Hickling et al (2006) studied the distributions of different taxonomic groups in Britain over the last 25years to examine any shifts in range that may have occurred. A shift in distribution upwards and northwards was found in most taxonomic groups with the latitude being a more significant factor than elevation. Alterations to geographic ranges will impact different organisms in different ways and at different times in their lifecycle. It is possible that the interactions between organisms could be severely affected and possibly even destroyed, in some instances resulting in the extinction of one or both of the species. With these shifts in distributions comes the increased possibility of species extinctions, one prediction for 2050 using a mid-range climate scenario showed 15-37% of species committed to extinction (Thomas et al 2004). In order to avoid the risk of extinction species will have to be able to keep up with the changing climate by migrating at fast enough rates however barriers such as mountains and fragmented, disturbed landscapes may hinder this migration (Pearson and Dawson 2003). General climate models which observe the possible consequences of climate change show a general pattern of the increasing of the Mediterranean summer drought (Gates 1993). As a result it is expected that a shift in species composition will occur and drought conditions will lead to reduced plant cover. This will inevitably impact many insect species including pollinators, such as bees, that will lose their source of nectar and pollen. Research suggests that resource specialists are likely to be the first to suffer declines as they rely on just one plant for their pollen (Cane et al 2006). Looking at the effect of local temperatures on abundance and richness may be able to give an indication of what will follow with global climate change and thus be an aid for planning and conservation measures. 2: Aims and Objectives Bees are essential for pollination and are the key to maintaining life as we know it. Reaching and maintaining the right temperature is essential for an insect’s flight, there is evidence that reaching this temperature is related to body size but does it vary with temperature within a microclimate? Does the local temperature affect the bee diversity and abundance and will this provide any insights into what may happen in the face of global climate change? Within Europe it has been reported that it is the remaining semi-natural habitats that contain the most species richness. If this is the case it would be expected that areas of human disturbance would experience a much lower diversity and abundance. In this project the aim is to examine the effect that the local conditions, temperature and landscape, have on the abundance and genera of bees in a selection of regions across Europe. Within this there are three main objectives to be examined: To determine if the local temperature affects the abundance and diversity of bees. To determine if the surrounding landscape, disturbed or natural, affects the diversity and abundance of bees. To establish whether the size of certain genera are significantly affected by the local environment. 3: Methodology 3.1: Site selection Samples of pollinators were collected in field sites throughout Europe in the summer of 2007 as part of the CITIRAT (Climate Interactions with Terrestrial plant Interactions a Risk Assessment Tool) project. The CITIRAT project is part of the wider EU ALARM (Assessing LArge scale Risks for biodiversity with tested Methods) project (http://www.alarmproject.net/alarm/). The field sites for the CITIRAT project were pre-determined by ALARM, with the core sites situated in different regions throughout Europe allowing the study of most of the climatic regions in Europe. For each of the core sites there are two sites measuring 4km by 4km within 50km of each other. One of the two sites being predominantly natural or semi-natural and the other site a disturbed landscape. The two focal sites have being selected so that the geological and environmental parameters are as similar as possible allowing the human disturbance to be the most distinguishing features between the sites. Figure 3.1.1 shows examples of the land cover in each category. Table 3.1.1: An example of the classification of disturbed and natural sites, categories taken from the level 3 CORINE 2000 land cover classification. Disturbed Non-irrigated arable land, pastures, discontinuous urban fabric, complex cultivation procedures, fruit trees and berry plantations, agro-forestry areas, olive groves, permanently irrigated land. Natural/semi-natural Mixed forest, coniferous forest, broadleaved forest, transitional woodland-scrub, sclerophyllous vegetation, natural grasslands. Using GIS analysis the temperature for each of the disturbed and natural areas was calculated using a model which combined the elevation, slope, aspect, average daytime temperature, clear sky solar radiation maps. This model then gave the temperatures for points throughout the landscape, the hottest 10% and coldest 10% of points were selected and ranked, the top two temperature points for both hot and cold were then determined and ready for fieldwork to begin. 3.2: Sampling method Each of the two landscapes (disturbed and natural) had two sampling rounds approximately 2 weeks apart. Within each sampling round two hot and two cold temperature sites were used (as predetermined by the GIS analysis). Each temperature spot had three cluster sets of pan traps, one white, one yellow and one blue. Each cluster contained five pan traps of a single colour. Each cluster was situated five metres apart in open, low vegetation at ground level. The pan traps were left out over a two day period in dry conditions with low wind and a temperature of greater than 15 ºC. Leaving pan traps out over a two day period eradicated any daily variation in bee species present due to daily temperature fluctuations. By using all three coloured pan traps bias was reduced as a range of colour preferences could be catered for (Leong and Thorp 1999). When the samples, preserved in alcohol, were returned to Leeds the samples were sorted taking note of the number of honeybees, number of bumble bees, number of other bees, number of hoverflies and the number of butterflies. Anything else that was collected in traps was discarded. The bumblebees and other bees were removed from the sample tubes, and were dried, pinned and labelled. The bees were then identified to genus level and the results recorded. Figure 3.3.1: Map of Europe showing the ALARM core sites. The yellow dots indicate the sites used in this analysis and their ‘country’ label. Adapted from an image available at: http://www.alarmproject.net. 3.3: Analytical method Samples were collected at sites all across Europe. Time and resource restraints meant that not all of the sites sampled could be pinned and identified for use in this study. The sites used were carefully selected with sites showing high variation in elevation and therefore temperature differences chosen. Figure 3.3.1 shows the European sites used in this project and table 3.3.1 shows the latitude and longitude of the sites. From here on these ‘sites’ will be called countries to avoid confusion. Table 3.3.1: Sites used with the latitude and Longitude Country Landscape Latitude Longitude Austria Disturbed 47.5205 14.1432 Austria Natural 48.0125 15.1620 Catalunya Disturbed 41.2620 1.7714 Catalunya Natural 41.2526 1.9006 Germany Disturbed 51.5491 9.7754 Germany Natural 51.4540 12.9410 Italy Disturbed 45.6202 12.4526 Italy Natural 45.7775 12.6088 Spain Disturbed 39.3153 -4.0661 Spain Natural 39.4133 -4.0650 UK Disturbed 51.5082 -1.5310 UK Natural 51.7650 -0.4585 To calculate the diversity for each of the conditions at each of the sites the Simpson’s diversity index, which is â€Å"one of the most meaningful and robust diversity measures†(Magurran 2004) was used. The index works by calculating the probability, that from a community of infinite size, two individuals will belong to the same species. The Simpson diversity index was expressed as 1-D therefore meaning that as the Simpson’s diversity decreases as does the diversity, this logical adaptation of the index mean that the diversity of the samples could easily be calculated and compared. In order to determine if the size of bees are affected by the local conditions one genus, Halictus was chosen due to them making up a large proportion of total individuals present. To measure the Halictus samples a random number table was used to determine which specimens should be measured. All of the specimens were females and from two countries, Spain and Germany. Digital callipers were used under a microscope to measure the width of the thorax, in-between the base of the wings. The numbers of Bombus’ were looked at as well as the size of the Halictus. Bombus’ are known to be (generally) a larger body size and better thermoregulators so provide a good genus to use as an indication of distribution related to the local environment factors. The information available for use in the statistical analysis was the number of individuals, the number of genera, the temperature (hot or cold), the landscape (disturbed or natural), the country, the sample round (1 or 2), the site (either 1 or 2), the diversity (Simpson’s 1-D), the number of bumblebees, the number of solitary bees and for a selection of sites the size of Halictus. The statistical analysis was carried out using R and Minitab for the principal component analysis. Excel was used for the production of some of the graphics. Not all the data was normally distributed, distributions were checked using the Shapiro-Wilk test. The analysis used was a mixed effects model but not all data meet the assumptions so where unavoidable non-parametric tests were used, a generalised mixed effects model (glmmPQL). 4: Results Nineteen Genera were identified; a list of these genera and authorities can be viewed in the appendix A. One genus could not be confirmed despite various opinions but is suspected that it might be Panurginus. 4.1: Individuals and genera Figure 4.1.1: The mean number of individuals per sample round, error bars indicate  ±1 SE. (t66= -5.804, p= A mixed effects model was used for the analysis of the individuals. The random effects were site, landscape and country. The standard deviation estimate for country was 0.528 showing that for the countries there was a variation from the mean, this may affect the outcome of the model. The only significant factor was sample round (t66=-6.456, p= There were no significant differences in individuals within temperature, landscape, sample round or any of the interaction terms. To alleviate the problem of countries having a great variation in the numbers of individuals the model was rerun with countries as a fixed factor. This reduced the variation of the random effects and recalculated the fixed effects. Sample round remained the only significant factor (t66= 5.804, p= The dataset for genera was non-parametric so the model used was the glmmPQL. A very low standard deviation estimate was given for each of the random factors (country= 4.2: Diversity The generalised mix effects model for diversity used Simpson’s 1-D values. The estimates of standard deviation for the random effect of country were extremely low, Figure 4.1.2: The mean diversity (Simpson’s 1-D) for each country. Error bars indicate  ± 1 SE. The diversity was not significantly for any of the factors, Standard deviation between countries was low at 4.3: Bumblebees and other bees The numbers of bumblebees (Bombus spp) were used in a generalised mixed effects model (glmmPQL) in order to determine if there were significant differences in the variation between temperature, landscape and sample round. The standard deviation of country was high at 1.376 showing that within the effect of country there was a lot of variation from the mean, thus contributing to the variation in bumblebees and possibly influencing the overall model. Of the fixed factors sample round and landscape were shown to be significant. Bumblebee numbers were significantly different for sample round (t79=-3.59, p=0.001, 95%CL) and landscape (t76= -3.314, p=0.001, 95%CL). Rerunning the model with country as a fixed factor changed the results. The standard deviation of the site was low at 81= -3.153, 95%CL), sample round (p=0.001, t81 = -3.394,) and also several countries were significantly different from the control country which was Austria. Catalunya (p=0.001, t81=-3.488, 95% CL), Italy (p=0.043, t81=-2.060, 95%CL), Spain (p=0.014, t81=-2.513, 95%CL) and the UK (p=0.002, t81=3.266, 95% CL). Germany was proven to not be significantly different from Austria (P=0.392, t81=-0.861, 95%CL) (figure 4.3.3). Figure 4.3.2: The number of bumblebees per landscape. Error bars indicate  ± 1SE (t81=-3.153, p=0.002, 95%CL). Figure 4.3.1: The number of bumblebees per sample round. Error bars indicate  ± 1SE (t81=-3.394, p=0.001, 95%CL). Figure 4.3.3: The mean number of bumblebees per country, error bars represents  ± 1 SE. The number of other bees (bees that were not honeybee or bumblebees) were taken and used in a mixed effect generalised linear model (glmmPQL). The model was initially run with the random factors of country and site. The standard deviation for country was 0.968 Effect of the Local Environment on Bees Effect of the Local Environment on Bees Local Environment Europe The effect of the local environment on bee abundance and diversity in regions throughout Europe. Bees have an important ecological role; they are insect pollinators providing a crucial service. Without insect pollination human diet would be very different to how we know it now. Declines in pollinators have been reported and by attempting to understand the how the local environment affects bee abundance and diversity it may be possible to prevent any further decline. Samples were collected at six sites across Europe in each site there was a disturbed landscape and a natural landscape and within each of these a hot and a cold area. Samples were collected, pinned and identified to genera and the Halictus measured. Analysis found that there was no significant difference in size between different countries, landscape and temperature. The number of individuals and the number of genera did not significantly differ between temperature, landscape and country however on a smaller country level there were differences in the numbers of individuals and genera at different landscapes. The number of bumblebees was affected by the landscape with more individuals found in the disturbed landscapes; it is possible that due to the foraging ability and feeding preferences that bumblebees are able to gain an advantage in a disturbed landscape. Different genera were found in different regions with high numbers of Panurgus and Panurginus found in Spain and Catalunya. The number of bumblebees was also found to be significantly related to latitude. These differences in composition in different areas could be seriously affected in the face of climate change. The effect of the local environment on bee abundance and diversity in regions throughout Europe. 1: Background and importance â€Å"If the bee disappeared off the surface of the globe then man would only have four years of life left. No more bees, no more pollination, no more plants, no more animals, no more man.† Albert Einstein 1.1: The importance of bees Bees provide the critical ecosystem service of pollination (Kearns et al 1998). Insect pollination is essential for our life as we know it. 84% of crops in the EU depend on insect pollination (Williams 1994) and one third of our diet can be attributed to insect pollination, either directly or indirectly (McGregor 1976). Of the insect pollinators it is bees which provide the most pollination, bees which are highly adapted to flower visitation, have been confirmed to be pollinators for 72.7% of crop species and it is thought they could be responsible for the pollination of another 10.2% (Williams 1994, Roubik 1995). Declines in bees point towards serious consequences for natural ecosystem process and agricultural processes (Biesmeijer et al 2006). The declines being experienced on local and regional scales present a worrying situation with habitat loss, fragmentation, agricultural intensification and pesticide use causing declines in honey bees, solitary bees, wild bees and bumble bees (Steffan-Dewenter et al 2005). The greatest diversity of bees in the world is experienced in arid and semi-arid regions of the world including the Mediterranean regions of Southern Europe (Danforth 2007). Most of the bees in the world are solitary bees (National Research Council of the National Academies 2007) and of the solitary bees the majority of them are resource specialists, oligolectic (Wcislo and Cane 1996). Oligolectics are bee species which collect pollen from one genus or species but can collect nectar from a variety of plants, they are often referred to as specialists. Polylectic bee species are generalists; they can collect pollen from a variety of flowering plants and include the honeybee (Apis) and the bumblebee (Bombus). In theory the risk of extinction is elevated in oligolectic bees as their presence and distribution is limited by just one floral host (Zayed and Packer 2007). Work by Cane et al (2006) into urban habitat fragmentation showed the abundance and richness of oligolectic bees to have declined but not to have declined in the polylectic bees. Due to the important role of bees it is essential to understand the abundance and diversity of bees across the landscape and the local factors that affect them. By understanding the local factors affecting the diversity and abundance of bees it may be possible to effectively manage and conserve bees and help to prevent any further declines in diversity and abundance. 1.2: Landscape Much of the natural habitat in Europe has been lost and the habitats with the highest species richness are the remaining semi-natural areas (Pimentel et al 1992). The impact of disturbance on insect communities is not so extensively studied as the impact on vegetation, on the studies that are available results show that different insect groups respond differently to disturbance (Steffan-Dewenter and Leschke 2003). Study by Steffan-Dewenter and Leschke (2003) on the effect of habitat management and landscape on bees and wasps in orchards in Europe showed that the vegetation was more significantly affected by the management practices than the insects. Bee species richness is correlated with the percentage of grassland in the surrounding landscape (Dauber et al 2003, Hendrickx et al 2007, Steffan-Dewenter et al 2002). The bees in the study by Hendrickx et al (2007) showed not only a decline with distance from semi-natural patches but also a decline with increasing management practices. The other groups in the study experienced increased numbers with proximity to semi-natural habitat but no significant declines with increasing agricultural management. The results for bees can be attributed due to bees having such a strong dependence on floral resources (Tscharntke et al 1998). Low plant diversity with limited floral resources may not to be able to support a high diversity of insects thus resulting in lower insect diversity and the ability to support only the generalist species (Westphal et al 2003). Proximity to floral resources and nesting sites is important as foraging distances can be fairly small. Large bumblebees such as Bombus terrestris can forage distances up to 3000m, as foraging distances are related to body size, smaller bees may only be able to forage a few metres (Westphal et al 2006). In the tropical forests of Costa Rica pasture management and the floral resources showed to have no significant impact on the diversity or abundance of bees, however deforested countryside just metres away from the forest contained a different community composition (Brosi et al 2006). The complexity of landscapes means that the impact of disturbance can vary depending on the frequency, intensity and extent of the disturbance (Samways 2005). Moderate disturbance can actually increase the diversity of the area by opening up areas for colonisation by providing ecological niches and opportunities for rarer species (Caswell 1976, Connell 1978, Petraitis et al 1989). Alternately diversity could be lowered as the dominance of opportunistic species is increased (Margalef 1968). Bees depend on floral resources for nectar and pollen and can only travel certain distances from their nesting site to reach it, both flowers and nests need to be close by. Therefore declining floral resources, and declining suitable nest sites, as experienced in large scale disturbed areas, may result in the declining numbers and diversity of bees. 1.3: Microclimate- temperature The microclimate, the lowest two metres of the atmosphere (Stoutjesdijk and Barkman 1992), is the layer of the atmosphere where the majority of plants and animals live (Unwin and Corbet 1991). The soil surface (or other substance, for example forest or concrete) influences the heat and moisture budget of the surrounding atmosphere producing localised variations in the climatic conditions, for example temperature, windspeed and humidity. The relationship between plant and microclimate is a close one with plants affecting the climatic conditions around them and the microclimate affects the factors controlling the functioning of the plant including the availability of the products required for photosynthesis. Insects benefit from this interaction and due to the close mutalistic relationship between some plant and insect species, for example plants and pollinators, are dependent on a healthy relationship between microclimate and plants. An unsuitable microclimate will lead to the deterioration of plant life and eventual death of the plant and insects dependent on it. 1.4: Insects, temperature and body size In many insects body temperature is essential in order to gain flight. An insect needs to gain enough energy to fly; it needs to raise the thoracic temperature above the temperature of the environment (Bishop and Armbruster 1999) this can be achieved by basking and endothermy (producing heat in the muscles) (Unwin and Corbet 1991). The size of the insect plays a vital role in the ability to heat up and subsequently fly and forage. A study by Casey and Joos (1983) found that the proportion of heat lost from the thorax per time unit decreases as the body mass of the insect increases, therefore larger insects are slower at gaining and loosing heat. Bishop and Armbruster (1999) also concluded that the ability to raise temperature in order to fly increases with body size making bumblebees better thermoregulators than solitary bees. Even when looking at solitary bees larger solitary bees will be better at thermoregulation than smaller solitary bees. Foraging activity can be restricted by thermoregulation factors (Heinrich 1974) and not just over winter. In the summer months foraging at high latitudes and higher temperatures may prove to be difficult for larger insects with solitary bees reaping the floral rewards. Whilst in cooler areas at lower latitudes larger bees, such as bumblebees will have the advantage (Bishop and Armbruster 1999). Tropical bumblebees have been found to be the largest bees, an exception to the rest of the findings by Peat et al (2205). They found that the mean size of bumblebees varies between different climates with colder climates having a larger mean size than those of warmer climates. Size variation of bumblebees within a region was found not to be related to temperature but other factors, possibly to improve colony foraging with different sizes able to visit different flowers (Peat et al 2005). It is not just at different temperatures, different latitudes and different elevations that there are heat constraints on the species present but also a daily sequence. Heinrich (1976) observed bees visiting flower patches and noted the day sequence process. Large insects, such as large bumblebees, are able to achieve a body temperature high enough to fly at a lower temperature than a smaller insect, for example a small solitary bee. This then means that earlier in the day the bumblebee can begin to forage and last longer into the evening when the temperature of the environment begins to fall. However in the midday heat the bumblebee may become overheated and need to retreat and cease flying for a few hours. The small solitary bee although not able to start until later and unable to continue into the evening will be able to cope in the midday heat and continue to forage (Unwin and Corbet 1991). The temperature of the area determines the foraging activity of bees and will influence the bees present in the area. What is under-researched is the effect of very localised temperature has on the bees and size of bees present. 1.5: Climate The temperature of the environment does not only determine the body temperature of the insect but also the geographical range (Gates 1993). Over the past 30years shifts in the abundance and distribution of a variety of species have been witnessed due to climate change (Parmesan and Yohe 2003). Hickling et al (2006) studied the distributions of different taxonomic groups in Britain over the last 25years to examine any shifts in range that may have occurred. A shift in distribution upwards and northwards was found in most taxonomic groups with the latitude being a more significant factor than elevation. Alterations to geographic ranges will impact different organisms in different ways and at different times in their lifecycle. It is possible that the interactions between organisms could be severely affected and possibly even destroyed, in some instances resulting in the extinction of one or both of the species. With these shifts in distributions comes the increased possibility of species extinctions, one prediction for 2050 using a mid-range climate scenario showed 15-37% of species committed to extinction (Thomas et al 2004). In order to avoid the risk of extinction species will have to be able to keep up with the changing climate by migrating at fast enough rates however barriers such as mountains and fragmented, disturbed landscapes may hinder this migration (Pearson and Dawson 2003). General climate models which observe the possible consequences of climate change show a general pattern of the increasing of the Mediterranean summer drought (Gates 1993). As a result it is expected that a shift in species composition will occur and drought conditions will lead to reduced plant cover. This will inevitably impact many insect species including pollinators, such as bees, that will lose their source of nectar and pollen. Research suggests that resource specialists are likely to be the first to suffer declines as they rely on just one plant for their pollen (Cane et al 2006). Looking at the effect of local temperatures on abundance and richness may be able to give an indication of what will follow with global climate change and thus be an aid for planning and conservation measures. 2: Aims and Objectives Bees are essential for pollination and are the key to maintaining life as we know it. Reaching and maintaining the right temperature is essential for an insect’s flight, there is evidence that reaching this temperature is related to body size but does it vary with temperature within a microclimate? Does the local temperature affect the bee diversity and abundance and will this provide any insights into what may happen in the face of global climate change? Within Europe it has been reported that it is the remaining semi-natural habitats that contain the most species richness. If this is the case it would be expected that areas of human disturbance would experience a much lower diversity and abundance. In this project the aim is to examine the effect that the local conditions, temperature and landscape, have on the abundance and genera of bees in a selection of regions across Europe. Within this there are three main objectives to be examined: To determine if the local temperature affects the abundance and diversity of bees. To determine if the surrounding landscape, disturbed or natural, affects the diversity and abundance of bees. To establish whether the size of certain genera are significantly affected by the local environment. 3: Methodology 3.1: Site selection Samples of pollinators were collected in field sites throughout Europe in the summer of 2007 as part of the CITIRAT (Climate Interactions with Terrestrial plant Interactions a Risk Assessment Tool) project. The CITIRAT project is part of the wider EU ALARM (Assessing LArge scale Risks for biodiversity with tested Methods) project (http://www.alarmproject.net/alarm/). The field sites for the CITIRAT project were pre-determined by ALARM, with the core sites situated in different regions throughout Europe allowing the study of most of the climatic regions in Europe. For each of the core sites there are two sites measuring 4km by 4km within 50km of each other. One of the two sites being predominantly natural or semi-natural and the other site a disturbed landscape. The two focal sites have being selected so that the geological and environmental parameters are as similar as possible allowing the human disturbance to be the most distinguishing features between the sites. Figure 3.1.1 shows examples of the land cover in each category. Table 3.1.1: An example of the classification of disturbed and natural sites, categories taken from the level 3 CORINE 2000 land cover classification. Disturbed Non-irrigated arable land, pastures, discontinuous urban fabric, complex cultivation procedures, fruit trees and berry plantations, agro-forestry areas, olive groves, permanently irrigated land. Natural/semi-natural Mixed forest, coniferous forest, broadleaved forest, transitional woodland-scrub, sclerophyllous vegetation, natural grasslands. Using GIS analysis the temperature for each of the disturbed and natural areas was calculated using a model which combined the elevation, slope, aspect, average daytime temperature, clear sky solar radiation maps. This model then gave the temperatures for points throughout the landscape, the hottest 10% and coldest 10% of points were selected and ranked, the top two temperature points for both hot and cold were then determined and ready for fieldwork to begin. 3.2: Sampling method Each of the two landscapes (disturbed and natural) had two sampling rounds approximately 2 weeks apart. Within each sampling round two hot and two cold temperature sites were used (as predetermined by the GIS analysis). Each temperature spot had three cluster sets of pan traps, one white, one yellow and one blue. Each cluster contained five pan traps of a single colour. Each cluster was situated five metres apart in open, low vegetation at ground level. The pan traps were left out over a two day period in dry conditions with low wind and a temperature of greater than 15 ºC. Leaving pan traps out over a two day period eradicated any daily variation in bee species present due to daily temperature fluctuations. By using all three coloured pan traps bias was reduced as a range of colour preferences could be catered for (Leong and Thorp 1999). When the samples, preserved in alcohol, were returned to Leeds the samples were sorted taking note of the number of honeybees, number of bumble bees, number of other bees, number of hoverflies and the number of butterflies. Anything else that was collected in traps was discarded. The bumblebees and other bees were removed from the sample tubes, and were dried, pinned and labelled. The bees were then identified to genus level and the results recorded. Figure 3.3.1: Map of Europe showing the ALARM core sites. The yellow dots indicate the sites used in this analysis and their ‘country’ label. Adapted from an image available at: http://www.alarmproject.net. 3.3: Analytical method Samples were collected at sites all across Europe. Time and resource restraints meant that not all of the sites sampled could be pinned and identified for use in this study. The sites used were carefully selected with sites showing high variation in elevation and therefore temperature differences chosen. Figure 3.3.1 shows the European sites used in this project and table 3.3.1 shows the latitude and longitude of the sites. From here on these ‘sites’ will be called countries to avoid confusion. Table 3.3.1: Sites used with the latitude and Longitude Country Landscape Latitude Longitude Austria Disturbed 47.5205 14.1432 Austria Natural 48.0125 15.1620 Catalunya Disturbed 41.2620 1.7714 Catalunya Natural 41.2526 1.9006 Germany Disturbed 51.5491 9.7754 Germany Natural 51.4540 12.9410 Italy Disturbed 45.6202 12.4526 Italy Natural 45.7775 12.6088 Spain Disturbed 39.3153 -4.0661 Spain Natural 39.4133 -4.0650 UK Disturbed 51.5082 -1.5310 UK Natural 51.7650 -0.4585 To calculate the diversity for each of the conditions at each of the sites the Simpson’s diversity index, which is â€Å"one of the most meaningful and robust diversity measures†(Magurran 2004) was used. The index works by calculating the probability, that from a community of infinite size, two individuals will belong to the same species. The Simpson diversity index was expressed as 1-D therefore meaning that as the Simpson’s diversity decreases as does the diversity, this logical adaptation of the index mean that the diversity of the samples could easily be calculated and compared. In order to determine if the size of bees are affected by the local conditions one genus, Halictus was chosen due to them making up a large proportion of total individuals present. To measure the Halictus samples a random number table was used to determine which specimens should be measured. All of the specimens were females and from two countries, Spain and Germany. Digital callipers were used under a microscope to measure the width of the thorax, in-between the base of the wings. The numbers of Bombus’ were looked at as well as the size of the Halictus. Bombus’ are known to be (generally) a larger body size and better thermoregulators so provide a good genus to use as an indication of distribution related to the local environment factors. The information available for use in the statistical analysis was the number of individuals, the number of genera, the temperature (hot or cold), the landscape (disturbed or natural), the country, the sample round (1 or 2), the site (either 1 or 2), the diversity (Simpson’s 1-D), the number of bumblebees, the number of solitary bees and for a selection of sites the size of Halictus. The statistical analysis was carried out using R and Minitab for the principal component analysis. Excel was used for the production of some of the graphics. Not all the data was normally distributed, distributions were checked using the Shapiro-Wilk test. The analysis used was a mixed effects model but not all data meet the assumptions so where unavoidable non-parametric tests were used, a generalised mixed effects model (glmmPQL). 4: Results Nineteen Genera were identified; a list of these genera and authorities can be viewed in the appendix A. One genus could not be confirmed despite various opinions but is suspected that it might be Panurginus. 4.1: Individuals and genera Figure 4.1.1: The mean number of individuals per sample round, error bars indicate  ±1 SE. (t66= -5.804, p= A mixed effects model was used for the analysis of the individuals. The random effects were site, landscape and country. The standard deviation estimate for country was 0.528 showing that for the countries there was a variation from the mean, this may affect the outcome of the model. The only significant factor was sample round (t66=-6.456, p= There were no significant differences in individuals within temperature, landscape, sample round or any of the interaction terms. To alleviate the problem of countries having a great variation in the numbers of individuals the model was rerun with countries as a fixed factor. This reduced the variation of the random effects and recalculated the fixed effects. Sample round remained the only significant factor (t66= 5.804, p= The dataset for genera was non-parametric so the model used was the glmmPQL. A very low standard deviation estimate was given for each of the random factors (country= 4.2: Diversity The generalised mix effects model for diversity used Simpson’s 1-D values. The estimates of standard deviation for the random effect of country were extremely low, Figure 4.1.2: The mean diversity (Simpson’s 1-D) for each country. Error bars indicate  ± 1 SE. The diversity was not significantly for any of the factors, Standard deviation between countries was low at 4.3: Bumblebees and other bees The numbers of bumblebees (Bombus spp) were used in a generalised mixed effects model (glmmPQL) in order to determine if there were significant differences in the variation between temperature, landscape and sample round. The standard deviation of country was high at 1.376 showing that within the effect of country there was a lot of variation from the mean, thus contributing to the variation in bumblebees and possibly influencing the overall model. Of the fixed factors sample round and landscape were shown to be significant. Bumblebee numbers were significantly different for sample round (t79=-3.59, p=0.001, 95%CL) and landscape (t76= -3.314, p=0.001, 95%CL). Rerunning the model with country as a fixed factor changed the results. The standard deviation of the site was low at 81= -3.153, 95%CL), sample round (p=0.001, t81 = -3.394,) and also several countries were significantly different from the control country which was Austria. Catalunya (p=0.001, t81=-3.488, 95% CL), Italy (p=0.043, t81=-2.060, 95%CL), Spain (p=0.014, t81=-2.513, 95%CL) and the UK (p=0.002, t81=3.266, 95% CL). Germany was proven to not be significantly different from Austria (P=0.392, t81=-0.861, 95%CL) (figure 4.3.3). Figure 4.3.2: The number of bumblebees per landscape. Error bars indicate  ± 1SE (t81=-3.153, p=0.002, 95%CL). Figure 4.3.1: The number of bumblebees per sample round. Error bars indicate  ± 1SE (t81=-3.394, p=0.001, 95%CL). Figure 4.3.3: The mean number of bumblebees per country, error bars represents  ± 1 SE. The number of other bees (bees that were not honeybee or bumblebees) were taken and used in a mixed effect generalised linear model (glmmPQL). The model was initially run with the random factors of country and site. The standard deviation for country was 0.968

William Goldings Lord Of The Flies Essay examples -- Lord Flies Goldi

The author, William Golding uses the main characters of Ralph, Jack, and Simon in The Lord of the Flies to portray how their desire for leadership, combined with lack of compromise leads to the fall of their society. This desire for leadership and compromise led to the fall of their society just like multiple countries during times of wars. In the Lord of the Flies, William Golding uses characters to convey the main idea of his novel. The story begins with a war, and a plane carrying several young boys, who are being evacuated, is shot down from the sky. There are no adult survivors; however; the boys were brought together by Ralph blowing on the conch shell. They formed a tribe to stay alive. Slowly the stability and the sense of safety in the group started to deteriorate, similar to the downfall of societies during World War II. They are not only hunting animals now, but they are killing each other like savages in order to stay alive. This action of killing is like Hitler during World War II and his persecution of Jews during the Holocaust. One of the main characters, Ralph, was very likeable to everyone and was almost immediately elected as the leader of the tribe, with the only competition being the leader of the choir boys, Jack. Even though Ralph just wants to get home, he remains to look strong and tough to the other boys, to try and keep things as civilized as possible. So, Ralph decides that; "We've got to have rules and obey them. After all, we're not savages. We're English, and the English are best a... ...the North and the South, just like the differences between Jack and Ralph in this novel. Chaos broke out in both situations and led to multiple murders. Another example of desire for leadership that led to society downfall was Germany during World War II. Adolph Hitler was the leader of Germany who created a nation that persecuted Jewish persons. He did not give in to anyone or any nation; this led to the breakout of World War II. Jack is an example of Adolph Hitler due to his desire of power over the island. Jack's actions led to a similar situation as Hitler's, however not as extreme or wide spread. So, the desire for leadership, combined with lack of compromise usually leads to the fall of a society or at least a drastic change.

Compare and contrast Essay

F. Scott Fitzgerald, a well-known writer of Jazz Age, wrote fictitious stories but most of them were based on his real life experiences. His wild and tragic experiences and struggles of life are clearly reflected in his stories. Even the reader understands the sequence of the story and clearly imagines the time period in which it must have occurred. The border between a real life experience and a fictitious story completely vanishes while reading Fitzgerald’s stories. Fitzgerald tried to use experimental techniques in his fiction through his two stories, ‘May Day’ and ‘The Diamond as Big as he Ritz’ and that helped him in his later works as well. ‘May Day’ is one of the best examples of his realistic stories. The story takes place after World War II and has many artistic visual descriptions that make the reader imagine the whole situation and surroundings. In chapter 1 there is description of Gordon when he enquires about Phillip Dean in Biltmore Hotel. The enquirer was dressed in a well-cut, shabby suit. He was small, slender, and darkly handsome; his eyes were framed above with unusually long eyelashes and below with the lue semicircle of ill health, this latter effect heightened by an unnatural glow which colored his face like a low incessant fever. (Chapter – 1, May Day) Fitzgerald makes the reader view New York City as on May Day in 1919. Here the readers could experience everything like the society dance, scene that includes a disorderly crowd of war veterans and also office of a socialist newspaper. The protagonist in this story of Fitzgerald prefers to suicide rather than marry a lower-class woman who tried to seduce him. In 1922, Fitzgerald wrote another short story ‘The Diamond as Big as the Ritz’ which ould be referred more accurately as a fantasy. In this story refined vindictiveness of the Washingtons, who live on the top of a diamond mountain and want to murder their guests to keep up the secret of the place. Fitzgerald, in fact wants to make the reader get aware of the situation in United States at that time along with its capitalism with the help of Washingtons and this story can be best termed as a political metaphor. The time when this story was written, the economy was flourishing and the political system was full of suspicion and sense of isolation. The Washington’s country was depicted as complete in itself with natural resources, political prisoners, own defense system and so on. The writer artistically visualizes the situation and the reader is left spellbound with it. Washingtons even tried to bribe God, which shows that they had taken their isolated country to an extreme, which could be symbolic for United States. This unique style of Fitzgerald of relating present symbolically through his fictions was quite admired by his critics too. The time when he was writing was very sensitive and ny kind of direct attack on politics or prevailing situation would create lot of problems for him. So this was the right and matured style of writing to approach target readers. This is the reason why most of Fitzgerald’s stories are favorites among readers specially ‘May Day’ and ‘The Diamond as Big as the Ritz’. Both the stories are different when plots are considered but the style and artistic visualizations used in both are remarkable. The characters and their feelings shown are quite natural and reader immediately gets into it.

Dividend Irrelevance Theory Essay Example

Dividend Irrelevance Theory Essay Example Dividend Irrelevance Theory Paper Dividend Irrelevance Theory Paper Dividend, a periodic payment made to stockholders to compensate them for delaying consumption and for the use of and risk to their investment funds O1. A firms decisions about the dividends are often mixed up with other financing and investment decisions. Some firms pay low dividends because management is optimistic about the firms future and wishes to retain earnings for expansion. In this case the dividend is a by-product of the firms capital budgeting decision. Another firm might finance capital expenditures largely by borrowing. This releases cash for dividends. In this case the dividend is a by-product of the borrowing decision O2. Once a company makes a profit, it must decide on what to do with those profits: either continues to retain the profits within the company, or pays them out to the owners of the firm in the form of dividends. Once the company decides to pay dividends, a somewhat permanent dividend policy may need to be established, which may in turn impact on investors and perceptions of the company in the financial markets. What kind of decision is depended on the situation of the company now and in the future. It also depends on the preferences of current investors and potential investors. Fisher Black (1976) wrote: The harder we look at the dividend picture, the more it seems like a puzzle. Based on our study, this article wont cover all the aspects of Dividend Policy, but from the view of a finance director, it attempts to provide a summary report to Board of Directors, regarding some related issues on dividend policy decision making in UK market. Dividend Theories Theoretically, there are 3 typical extensions trying to explain the relationship of a firms dividend policy and common stock value: Dividend Irrelevance Theory (Miller Modigliani, 1961) O3: which is lately known as MM. This theory purports that, in a world without any market imperfections like taxes, transaction costs or asymmetric information, a firms dividend policy has no effect on either its value or its cost of capital (Figure 1. 1). Investors value dividends and capital gains equally. However, the crucial assumption here is the independence of a companys investment policy from its dividend policy. Investment policy is all that matters, since value of the firm equals present value of future cash flows. How these cash flows are split between dividends and retained earnings are then irrelevant. Given the companys investment policy, dividend policies affects only the level of outside financing required (in addition to retained earnings) to fund new investment and pay the dividend. This means that each dollar of dividends represents a dollar of capital gains lost. According to MM, the only important determinant of a companys market value is its investment policy because it is responsible for the companys future profitability. As a result, it does not matter whether the firm pays out its earnings or not. The basic contention (and recommendation) underlying the MM proposition is that manager should subordinate the dividend decision to investment decisions O4. Optimal Dividend Policy (Gorden Lintner, 1962) O5: Proponents believe that there is a dividend policy that strikes a balance between current dividends and future growth that maximizes the firms stock price. Addresses the investor preference for receiving dividends without selling stock, arguing that a capital gain in the bush is perceived as riskier than a dividend in the hand. Miller Modigliani refer to this theory as the bird in the hand fallacy, suggesting that most investors will reinvest their dividends in the same or similar firms anyway and that in the long run risk is determined by asset cash flows not dividend policy. This theory from Myron Gordon is rather an argument about investment policy than about dividends. What the Bird in the Hand-Theory is really saying is that companies paying low dividends tend to have riskier investments. For this reason and not for the low dividend perse investors discount the earnings of low dividend (and therefore risky) company more heavily. The market discounts future earnings according to the risk of the company, regardless of whether those earnings will be retained or distributed. However, what is important to recognize is that higher risk causes lower dividend, and not the reverse. Dividend Relevance Theory (Graham Dodd, 1988) O6: The value of a firm is affected by its dividend policy. The optimal dividend policy is the one that maximizes the firms value. Since dividends are taxed at higher rates than capital gains, investors require higher rates of return as dividend yields increase. This theory suggests that a low dividend payout ratio will maximize firm value. Results of empirical tests of these theories are mixed and have not led to definitive conclusions. In the less than theoretical real world, companies budget future dividend payments the same way that they budget any other cash outflow such as debt service requirements, capital expenditures, or any foreseeable demand for cash. As a result, when a board of directors sets a general dividend policy, it is often in terms of and always in consideration of projected cash flows not earnings. Thus, the internal policy might well be described as a certain percentage of cash flow, even for companies that express their policy publicly in terms of payout ratios or a percent of earnings In the real world, markets cannot be absolutely efficient or wholly inefficient. Markets are essentially a mixture of both, and daily decisions and events cannot always be reflected immediately into a market; moreover, if all participants were to believe that the market is efficient, no one would seek extraordinary profits, the force that keeps the wheels of the market turning. Semi-strong market efficiency, as indicated by Jack Treynor, holds that the market will not be always either quick or accurate in processing new information. On the other hand, it is not easy to transform the resulting opportunities to trade profitably against the market consensus into superior portfolio performance O7.

history consumurism essays

history consumurism essays History consumerism In order to discuss and explain how consumerism has changed American society it must be understood from where it was derived. In order for a manufacturer to run a prosperous corporation the key lies within production and distribution of the product. As long as the manufacturer sparks and keeps the interest of the consumer, consumerism will continually alter American society. In the past when a manufacturer would put a product for sale he'd advertise, sometimes in paper or if a consumer purchased the product by chance and it was a good quality product it would get around by word of mouth, which brings us to the connection. Consumerism, advertising, mass media, and sports all have a connection. They are like a web. Without consumerism the need for advertising would not exist. The manufacturer constantly needs to keep his product in the eye of the people, what better way to do this but advertising? Advertising keeps manufacturers and any form of entertainment in business. It makes everything that much more appealing. The needs of society are constantly changing this is due to consumerism. Depending on a products mass appeal a consumer will make a luxury into necessity, for example the automobile. At one time one-horse carriages were used as transportation but since the invention of cars people found that that automobiles were a must. Sports today use Americans union and sense pride to promote the entertainment of athleticism. They advertise the players of the sports making them seem unbeatable. The consumer's interest is caught therefore luring them to a game and purchasing over priced products. As long manufacturers find was to keep consumers interested in their products, consumerism will continually change American society In order to discuss and explain how consumerism has changed American society it must b ...

An Overview Of Meningitis

An Overview Of Meningitis Meningitis is swelling and inflammation of the protective membranes that cover brain and spinal cord. Depending on the duration of symptoms, meningitis may be classified as acute or chronic. Acute meningitis denotes the evolution of symptoms within hours to several days, while chronic meningitis has an onset and duration of weeks to months. Meningitis is mainly caused by infection with viruses, several different types of bacteria, or sometimes by a fungus, and less commonly by certain drugs. Meningitis can be life-threatening because of the inflammation’s proximity to the brain and spinal cord. All types of meningitis tend to cause symptoms that include fever, headache and stiff neck. Knowing whether meningitis is caused by a virus or bacterium is important because the severity of illness and the treatment differ depending on the cause. Viral meningitis, the most common form of meningitis, is less severe than bacterial meningitis. Bacterial meningitis is usually more serious than viral meningitis and is sometimes fatal, particularly in infants and the elderly. Bacterial meningitis is a major cause of death and disability world-wide. [1] b. The etiology and risk factors Meningitis is usually caused by infection from viruses or micro-organisms. Most cases are due to infection with viruses, with bacteria, fungi, and parasites being the next most common causes. It may also result from various non-infectious causes. The etiology of bacterial meningitis varies by age group and region of the world. Worldwide, without epidemics one million cases of bacterial meningitis are estimated to occur and 200,000 of these die annually. [1] Before antibiotics were widely used, 70 percent or more of bacterial meningitis cases were fatal; with antibiotic treatment, the fatality rate has dropped to 15 percent or less. Bacterial meningitis is most common in the winter and spring. Beyond the perinatal period, three organisms, transmitted from person to person through the excha nge of respiratory secretions, are responsible for most cases of bacterial meningitis: Neisseria meningitidis, Haemophilus influenzae, and Streptococcus pneumoniae. Bacterial meningitis caused by Neisseria meningitidis bacteria (meningococcal disease) can be fatal and should always be viewed as a medical emergency. About 10% of infected people die from the disease. [5] In non-fatal cases, those affected experience long-term disabilities, such as brain damage, loss of limb, or deafness. Preventing the disease through the use of meningococcal vaccine is important. Although anyone can get meningitis, pre-teens and adolescents, college freshmen who live in dormitories and travelers to countries where meningitis is always present are at an increased risk for meningococcal disease. Before the availability of effective vaccines, bacterial meningitis was most commonly diagnosed in young children. Now, as a result of the protection offered by current childhood vaccines, bacterial meningitis is more commonly diagnosed among pre-teens and young adults. As children reach their pre-teen and adolescent years, protection provided by some childhood vaccines can begin to wear off. As a result, pre-teens and adolescents are at a greater risk for catching certain diseases. Introducing vaccinations during the pre-teen years increases the level of protection during adolescence. College freshmen, especially those who live in dormitories, are at a slightly increased risk for bacterial meningitis caused by Neisseria meningitidis bacteria (meningococcal disease) compared with other persons of the same age. vaccination against bacterial meningitis caused by Neisseria meningitidis bacteria (meningococcal disease) is recommended to persons who travel to or reside in countries in which the bacterium Neisseria meningitidis is hyperendemic or epidemic, particularly if contact with the local population will be prolonged.

The Starry Night by Vincent Van Gogh Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Starry Night by Vincent Van Gogh - Essay Example Most nightly features, including the moon, are exaggerated with yellow colour to highlight their effects and create a sense of ease when viewing the picture. The swirling clouds and the radiance surrounding the stars create a sense of movement as if the sky were in constant motion and turbulence. Use of white and yellow attracts the viewer’s attention the sky. This false perception helps maintain the vision of viewers and encourages them to pursue the other elements embodied within the painting. It is possible that bouts of depression and hallucination could be behind his thick and distinctive brushstrokes that further dramatize the painting4. The sky gives way to a number of hills and a small town at their base. In contrast to the vibrant sky, the town appears peaceful with its occupants enjoying a blissful night of sleep. The cooler and darker colours used to paint the town and the hillside could perhaps be a reminder of our vision during childhood of darkness and the nightl y skies5. The much larger and taller church seem to overwhelm every other building in the town and project the notion of tranquillity and peace within the town. The depiction of the church is further symbolic of its significant role in the daily lives of the town’s residents. The size and wobbly portrayal of the cypress trees to the left symbolizes its isolation and embodies a sense of depth within the artwork. Q5 Van Gogh painted the ‘Starry Night’ in 1888 while he was resident in a mental asylum. Rather than being a real life portrait, the painting is a depiction of Van Gogh’s imaginary vision when he looks out of his window. It is evident that this impressionist portrayal is highly creative and casts a heart rendering insight into Van Gogh’s mental health. In fact, Van... Van Gogh completed ‘The Starry Night’ about an year before his death at the mental asylum in Saint-Remy. This painting is widely regarded as the best work of Van Gogh as it depicts his struggles between reality and insanity. This artwork depicts radiant streaks of yellow emanating from the planets that rotate like cartwheels . The scenery seems shaky and in turbulence, although the brightly lit night sky appears calm and restful. ‘Starry Night’ has played a revolutionary role in modern art and has been highly sought after and replicated. In his early years, Van Gogh had wanted to devote his time towards the poor and needy. In fact, his desire for religion and evangelization is believed to be reflected in the eleven stars that occupy the nightly sky in the painting. Experts like (include author) cite Genesis 37-9 as clear evidence towards this connection: "And he dreamed yet another dream, and told it his brethren, and said, Behold, I have dreamed a dream more; and, behold, the sun and the moon and the eleven stars made obeisance to me." In fact, this religious inclination is showcased in earlier paintings such as the 1888 depiction of stars on the Rhone river. Much like the ‘Starry Night’, this painting contains similar features such as night sky being washed with bright streaks of yellow light from several stars. The reflection of the city’s (Arles) lights in the river water instils an added sense of reality into the canvas and maintains the vision of the viewer. This is further enhanced by distant structures that are lit up from the glowing night sky. The ‘Starry Night’ played a key role in the emergence of modern art during the post-impressionist era.

French colonisation in popular culture of francophone countries Personal Statement

French colonisation in popular culture of francophone countries - Personal Statement Example With the French culture spreading beyond the national boundaries, one would argue that one of the major implications of the French colonization led to the spread of French language to Africans. Sonnenburg continues to emphasize that the French assumed the African syntax and made it obligatory for the Africans to speak French, a policy referred to as the assimilation process (221). Centuries later, the Francophone countries still use French as their official language. Africans adopted the Frenchman way of living. The mode of dressing changed for the Africans. Regardless of copious protests against the revolution of the Africans to Frenchmen, the French managed to change the Africans. With time, studies indicate that Africans were able to change their lifestyles to French to extent that to be elected in the legislative assembly, Africans had to lead a life similar to that of the Frenchman (220). In the case of Tunisia for example, nearly all the elite and government officials had been assimilated to being Frenchmen. Eradication of the French language and replace it with the indigenous Arabic language was completely tasking for the Tunisians. With French literacy elevated in Tunisia, this is yet another impact on the culture of Francophone colonies of Africa. In a study of colonization and France with its spheres of influence, France ought not to be linked to colonization. France has been associated with education and spread of the same to other generations (223). In one way or another, it would arguable that the French brainwashed their colonies into accepting their language and culture; thus, entire loss of the African identity. As opposed to coercion like other colonial masters, the French managed to influence he colonies into embracing the Frenchman way of living (222). Francophone countries became multicultural societies embodied with a blend of both African culture- in minute forms, and the French culture dominating the way

How was Nazi Concentration Camp worser than Soviet Concentration Camps Movie Review

How was Nazi Concentration Camp worser than Soviet Concentration Camps - Movie Review Example They killed millions of people for political gains. In the end, it all boils down to quality vs. quantity. Under which regime did more people died? Vs. which regime killed more brutally? The popular perception is that perhaps Stalin regime probably killed far more people than the Nazis. But records from relevant sources (scholars from Poland, Israel and Germany) show that Stalin regime killed far less people than Nazis. The Nazi regime focused their attention on one race. Holocaust was targeted towards Jews and the majority of them were tortured to death or died from starvation. Stalin regime did kill millions of people in Gulag but these numbers are far less than Nazi killings. There is a certain reason as to why the Holocaust is considered far worse than the crimes committed by the Stalin. Labeling an entire race of people as ‘outcasts’ is more brutal than finding political excuses to take people’s lives. People who suffered under Stalin regime probably could have found an excuse to spare their lives by paying strict taxes but Jews had no chance under Hitler’s rein. They were either supposed to flea of die. It is sad and satirical to count dead bodies and claim a winner in this debate. Numbers of killings doesn’t matter. It’s about human lives and tragedy that was hammered down upon people living in both countries. Some people say that the number in Stalin camps were far more than the people at Nazi concentration camp. But when a loved one is lost, it is only the family that actually suffers and knows how much it hurts. For instance the argument about the number of people who were murder at Treblinka; whether they were 780,862 or 780,863 doesn’t make much sense. It is a huge number and the tragedy doesn’t subside by thinking that it is a huge number. The individual life matters and there is no truth beyond that. All these people were humans and they left loved ones to mourn their death. Nazis killed much more people than

Film Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Film - Essay Example She’s an elegant and beautiful girl but with a tomboy attitude and dress sense as a result of being brought up by her father and older brother, after her mother died giving birth to her. She’s frequently seen dressed in Samurai warrior attire and rarely if ever in the traditional woman’s kimono dress. Despite some of her stronger and feistier attributes, however, she is nonetheless gentle, kind and honest. The Empress is really the antagonist here although at first it seems like it may be her son, Emperor Wu. She is a strong leader and comes across at first as wise yet firm. However, despite her soft spot for her son, the Empress Shuang is hard and cruel. She is ruled by ancient social traditions and beliefs and any sign of kindness is swamped by this. Again, she is an elegant woman but her fury makes her appear ugly and After a change in the plot the protagonist has to make a new decision to achieve the goal and restore the world to some form of balance (Aside from the new relationship she has with Emperor Wu, Jiao mission is still important. However, Jiao’s heritage is discovered but her secret mission remains secret. She now must carry out an alternative plan in order to complete the mission she’s been assigned to). The year is 202 BC. Dwelling in rural China is a flourishing tribe derived from the Manchu. They are a self sufficient community that focus their efforts on farming and martial arts and traditions. They dress in traditional clothing rich in texture and colour and each and every citizen of the tribe dedicated their lives to maintaining the prosperity and ongoing happiness of the tribe. They are led by a man named Delun. He is a wise man with a greatest devotion and commitment to his people. Over the past few years Delun had led his tribe through the unification of Middle China and into the Han Dynasty with reasonable success. But now China was approaching a time where Delun

The Black Album Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Black Album - Essay Example Some authors writing about Islam, like Alex Haley, come from Christian backgrounds. Other authors, like Amitav Ghosh, Zadie Smith, Hanif Kureishie, and Salmon Rushdie, come from Islamic backgrounds. The difference in the portrayal is the authors experiences. It is important to explore the Muslim character in the modern age in the light of current international and local political events. This will be achieved by having a review of some of literary texts written in the 20th and 21st century. In order to understand Islam in literature, an analysis by comparing and contrasting various literary texts will be undertaken. In this study I will focus on how selected writers, authors, and thinkers interpret the relationship between Muslims and the West, particularly as the land of immigration for Muslims from the Middle and Far East.. These texts talk about many themes such as Muslims communities, the separation of these communities from the outside Western world, the relationship between Muslims and the people from the West, the radical points of view some of Muslims in the west posses, the ‘crises of belonging’, and the search for an identity that seem to affect many of the characters in these texts. The influence of the Islamic terrorist minority will be shown. The Western world has fixated on the terrorist and violent aspect of Muslims since before 9/11. An example provided will be Malcolm X. Malcolm X did not believe in the non-violent approach of Martin Luther King (a Christian). Although Malcolm X intended the violence to be in self defence, Islam became equal to violence in his writings. The way that these writers characterize people of different mentalities among the Muslims, the fairness of their characterization, the attitudes and the changes in them, the description of these characters as being similar or different, and the way these texts regard the

End of Confederacy and Efforts of Lincoln and Johnson Essay

End of Confederacy and Efforts of Lincoln and Johnson - Essay Example But at the same time there were views favoring the solution based on limited role of federal government in restructuring process while ensuring unity and nationwide healing policy. This suggestion was against the policy of Radical Reconstruction which was being viewed as the one based on hatred against the Southerners. The main concern of the government was that of defining its role in shaping the political, economic and social integrity of the southern states as the union forces had freed nearly four million slaves. The possibility of co-existence of freed slaves with the rest of white population in a resentful environment was more problematic than the war as it was the issue of slavery that spurred secession among southern states. In Congress, Democrats and moderate Republicans were favoring the lenient policing while the Radical Republicans were pushing for harsher program and complete intervention of federal authority in the restructuring process that should include total equality of newly freed slaves with the remaining white population. But President Lincoln was in favor of the lenient approach as he was in believe that the war itself has changed the states dramatically and more punishment would actually hinder the healing process and forward movement of the nation as a whole.

The Black Album Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Black Album - Essay Example Some authors writing about Islam, like Alex Haley, come from Christian backgrounds. Other authors, like Amitav Ghosh, Zadie Smith, Hanif Kureishie, and Salmon Rushdie, come from Islamic backgrounds. The difference in the portrayal is the authors experiences. It is important to explore the Muslim character in the modern age in the light of current international and local political events. This will be achieved by having a review of some of literary texts written in the 20th and 21st century. In order to understand Islam in literature, an analysis by comparing and contrasting various literary texts will be undertaken. In this study I will focus on how selected writers, authors, and thinkers interpret the relationship between Muslims and the West, particularly as the land of immigration for Muslims from the Middle and Far East.. These texts talk about many themes such as Muslims communities, the separation of these communities from the outside Western world, the relationship between Muslims and the people from the West, the radical points of view some of Muslims in the west posses, the ‘crises of belonging’, and the search for an identity that seem to affect many of the characters in these texts. The influence of the Islamic terrorist minority will be shown. The Western world has fixated on the terrorist and violent aspect of Muslims since before 9/11. An example provided will be Malcolm X. Malcolm X did not believe in the non-violent approach of Martin Luther King (a Christian). Although Malcolm X intended the violence to be in self defence, Islam became equal to violence in his writings. The way that these writers characterize people of different mentalities among the Muslims, the fairness of their characterization, the attitudes and the changes in them, the description of these characters as being similar or different, and the way these texts regard the

Home School Essay Example for Free

Home School Essay It has come to the attention of many that the debate over home schooling has been getting more brutal each and every day. Below is reassurance on why the board should offer this marvelous opportunity to these students. Every student is different, each has its own learning curves; some more then others. I am for home school because students can be overwhelmed by the large amount of work, students can get off task easily in traditional school, and if a student is home schooled, the student is the center of attention. When students go to traditional school, there are a lot of other students. Being with so many other students can be overwhelming for some, not all. For the students that it is too overwhelming for, why shouldn’t those students get an equal opportunity to do there best in school? If it is school were talking, then throw in the conversation of life as well. Without good schooling, students will be unable to get into a good college, without college, well it is kind of sad for the rest of their lives. As the Board of Education you want students to succeed in school, and in life, well then tell people to stop trying to slow down there education and the process in which students and parents educate. A positive in being home schooled is not getting off task. If the students do not have a large amount of distraction, then the want for distraction will be eliminated. Students get off task very easily (Trust me). An example of an off task student is a student talking to another student, thus far not hearing the teachers instructions. By keeping them on task then that is a great way to destroy a learning curve or learning curves. Another positive in home school is, the student is the center of attention! In any traditional school, there is a lot of students that do not understand or get the concept of a focus of study. Teachers have many students and may not always be available to make the focus of study more clear to the student. Home school guarantees the idea of a student never being left behind. What is the point of putting a student through school and the student only grasps bits and pieces, when the student could understand it all and probably even learn more then the average student in traditional school. To conclude this essay, please remember that home schooling is a great opportunity. Students are different and need special attention. I am for home school because students can be overwhelmed by the large amount of work, students can get off task easily in traditional school, and if a student is home schooled, the student is the center of attention. If the student can afford and have the means to do so, let home schooling happen!

MAC and Physical Layer Enhancements

MAC and Physical Layer Enhancements Abstract Communication technologies have improved a lot since the time we started using radio waves for communicating. We have seen advancement not just in the Cellular side but also on the WiFi side. The availability of limited spectrum has been the issue of the 21st century. As we have improved our technologies from the First generation which was based on analog communication to Fourth Generation which is based on Orthogonal Frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM), the free space in the spectrum has also reduced which has created the problems of congestion. We have come to the point where there is a demand for high capacity, better throughput, constant connectivity and high spectral efficiency. To cater this demand, we not only need high-end devices but equally efficient core network. This paper would focus on the converging technology enhancements at Physical and MAC (Media Access Control) layer of the Fifth generation (5G) on the cellular side and 802.11ad on WiFi side. I. Introduction With the increasing number of users, there is a spectral crunch in both the licensed and unlicensed spectrum. Licensed spectrum is the frequency chunk which is bought by the telecom companies, and a company can use its specific frequency band. The technologies in the licensed spectrum are GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication), CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access), LTE (Long Term Evolution). Unlicensed spectrum is the frequency chunk which is free and can be used by anyone. The technologies used in unlicensed spectrum are Bluetooth, WiFi. The increasing number of users have created the need for finding new spectrums and simultaneously new technologies which can be used to improve the efficacy of both cellular and WiFi communication. New standards i.e. 5G for cellular communication and 802.11ad for WiFi are going to use high-frequency bands which were never used before. This untapped potential is going to be a game changer. It will not just improve the spectral efficiency and th e throughput but will also increase the capacity. Technologies such as 802.11ac and LTE-Advanced (Long term evolution-advanced) could provide data rates as high as 1 Gigabytes per second (Gbps) [5] [6]. Also, LTE-A used 2620-2690 MHz (Mega Hertz), and 802.11ac used 5GHz (Giga Hertz) band for data transfer [1] [5]. 802.11ac and LTE-A employed technologies such as MIMO (multiple input, multiple output), beamforming which helped in achieving necessary throughput and capacity requirements, but now even these enhancements need necessary upgradation and changes to support the ever-increasing demand. Not only this but the cost of the wired backhaul is also a big concern. All these needs must be met in 5G and 802.11ad. The cost of wired backhaul can be reduced by moving towards mm-wave (Millimeter wave) which will not just decrease the cost of backhaul but will also improve the overall throughput [1]. This can be a converging point for the two technologies. 5G will be using frequency band i.e. 28 and 38 GHz, and 802.11ad will be using the 60GHz band which falls in mm-wave frequency band [1] [2]. Directional beamforming will be another addition to both 5G and 802.11ad wherein we will direct the signal towards the intended receiver that will help in reducing the power required [1] [2]. Figure 1. Improvement in performance from 4G to 5G. [8] Figure 1 gives a clarity about the targets which were set after using International Mobile Telecommunications-Advanced (IMT-Advanced Standard) i.e. 4G to enhance its performance in case of International Mobile Telecommunications-2020 (IMT-2020 Standard) i.e. the 5G standard [8]. II. Physical Layer Enhancements Here are some of the enhancements at the Physical layer of 802.11ad and 5G: 1. Millimeter Wave: (i) Millimeter wave in 802.11ad: Propagation of signal in the 60GHz unlicensed spectrum is different from that of 5GHz and 2.4GHz which were used in previous WiFi protocols. The frequency range in which the 60GHz falls is the Millimeter wave frequency band. Millimeter wave band will allow faster data transfer and will help us in using wireless docking stations. This will reduce the cost of backhaul as we will be removing the wires. The issues with 60GHz spectrum are its smaller range due to high attenuation, as the wavelength is small thus it causes blockage due to concrete walls [2]. We can also see from the figure 2. that the effect of oxygen in the atmosphere at 60GHz is high and causes atmospheric absorption of the millimeter wave. These are some of the limitations of 60 GHz band which are being looked at like the issue of absorption by oxygen can be reduced by using band Figure 2. High Atmospheric absorption at 60GHz. [1] (ii) Millimeter wave in 5G: The proposed band for 5G is 28GHz and 38GHz which falls in the region of millimeter wave. This is going to help in increase the data rate. The proposed data rate is nearly 20Gbps which is nearly 20 times that of 4G [8]. Millimeter waves can travel smaller distances as the wavelength is small which causes high attenuation due to atmospheric absorption. This can be mitigated by using the concept of small cells in our network. Cell size can be up to 200 meters. Figure 3. Attenuation Due to Heavy Rainfall. [1] Figure 3 shows the attenuation due to heavy rainfall of 25 millimeter/hour for a 28GHz band for 1 Kilometer cell size i.e. 7db which will be only 1.4db for a cell size of 200 meter [1]. 2. Beamforming: (i) Directional Beamforming in 802.11ad: In directional beamforming, the signals are directed to the intended receiver. It has been introduced instead of using an omnidirectional antenna which used to send the beam in all the directions reducing the power of the signal. But it is highly impractical to use highly-directional transmissions as there is a high chance of attenuation due to blockages. This can be prevented by using automatic gain control. MAC mechanisms are also affected due to the Highly directional communications such that the devices are not able to know that there is some other communication going on which increases the chances of collision. Golay sequences are used to reduce these chances of collisions. Golay sequences are the complementary sequences and help in synchronization and automatic gain control that in turn helps in attaining a throughput of 27.5Mbps thus making Management frames more efficient. Sum of out-of-phase Autocorrelation coefficients for Golay sequ ences being zero reduces the level of side lobes which in turn helps in reducing the chance of collision [2]. (ii) Adaptive beamforming in 5G: Beamforming is a concept in which we change the specific weights at the antenna level such that we direct the signal to a specific area by concentrating the power in the main lobe and reducing the power of signals in the side lobe. This will increase the throughput and hence will improve the user experience. In adaptive beamforming, the channel is used in an efficient manner which also helps in reducing the issue of interference. This can be achieved by using the concept of scheduling in different base stations. This can be used in a very interesting manner in 5G, and it will also help by improving the coordination between various eNodeBs. Hence the concept of adaptive beamforming will make the 5G network faster and more efficient [9]. 3. MIMO: (i) Multiuser-MIMO (MU-MIMO) in 802.11ad: At physical layer level 802.11ad works in two modes i.e. OFDM and Single carrier mode. MIMO is used for diversity in communication. In multiuser MIMO for 802.11ad, we use a matrix of a minimum of 2X2 (2 receiver antennas and 2 transmitter antennas). We can send signals to 2 or more users at one time with a very high throughput because we are employing OFDM. Previously we were employing only single user-MIMO wherein we used to send multiple signals to only one user. No doubt it gave high speed, but we were not able to use the limited unlicensed spectrum efficiently. Thus, with the advent of Multiuser-MIMO, the problem of low efficiency has been reduced [2] [10]. Figure 4. Block diagram of Transmitter in MIMO [10]. From figure 4 we can see how the data is sent using MIMO technique. Here firstly data is sent to the scrambler. After scrambling the data, it is encoded by the LDPC (low-density parity-check) encoder for tone interleaving. After interleaving the OFDM processed data we apply Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT) on the data. Finally, we add a guard interval to protect the sent data [10]. (ii) Massive MIMO in 5G: 5G will be using massive MIMO technique that will involve a large number of antennas and the number will more than 10 times larger than previous networks. This will not just give a high amount of beamforming gains but will also increase the capacity of the network. But there is a catch here. The increase in a number of streams will increase the overhead of pilot signals, and because of this, we will use some part of our spectrum. Also, there is an increase in the complexity if we use a high number of antennas. The solution to this overhead is that we can use Non-Linear Estimators and small cells which will help in reducing the effect as at high signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio (SINR) the effect of errors in the signal is very less [4]. III. MAC Layer enhancements Here are some of the enhancements at the MAC layer of 802.11ad and 5G: 1. Beamforming Training in 802.11ad: Beamforming training is a part of directional beamforming in which we select a pair of receiver and transmitter sectors so that the network can be optimized and we can get the best coverage. Figure 5. Sector training in Transmitter and Receiver antenna [2]. Figure 5 shows the sector training process. This is done is three phases. In the first step, we try to find the best transmitting antenna. In the second step, the training of only those transmitting and receiving antennas happens for which the transponder thinks are the best for the network. In the third step, various weights for the antennas are adjusted according to the changes in the channel so as to get the maximum level of Signal to Noise Ratio which will thus be able to get the best coverage for the network. Hence the process of Beamforming training for 802.11ad is completed [2] [3] [7]. 2. Contention-Based Medium Access in 802.11ad: In IEEE 802.11 standards, enhanced distributed channel access (EDCA) is used for contention-based Medium access. But there is an issue of deafness that arises when we use the contention based medium access and directional beamforming together. This can be reduced by using Beamforming training wherein we select the best transmitter and receiver antenna for the communication. Chances of collisions are increased due to deafness because carrier sensing ability is reduced. Multiple Network allocation vector (NAV) timers are used at the MAC level. Here the channel is allocated only if the NAV is zero and will not be allocated in case the NAV is non-zero. The concept of NAV for the contention window in 802.11 standards has been used previously as well. Using this concept will enhance the capacity and efficiency of 802.11ad and will be different from previous standards as it uses direction beamforming [2]. 3. Dynamic Channel Time Allocation in 802.11ad: Dynamic channel time allocation is a polling based allocation of resources in 802.11ad at the MAC layer. The polling is done not just for one frame but for a specific time chunk of the channel. The issue of deafness is avoided due to personal basic service set (PBSS) control point/access point (PCP/AP) that reduces the chance of a collision as PCP/AP knows the path of transmitting antenna. The process of Dynamic Channel time allocation is explained in Figure 6. It shows the Beacon header interval (BHI) can be used in dynamic scheduling. Firstly, a channel is gained by the PCP/AP for the polling frames that are sent to their respective stations. Service period requests (SPRs) are used to reserve a specific channel time for their respective communication. Communication can be between Station (STA)- STA or STA Access Point (AP). Channel protection points act as the guard time between two allocated channel times adding reliability in communication [2]. Figure 6. Dynamic Channel Time Allocation [2]. 4. Full-Duplex MAC Protocol in 5G: At Physical layer level, Full-Duplex must reduce the use spectrum making the communication efficient. At MAC layer level the protocol must be defined such that it optimizes the network and reduces the chances of collision. The problem of a hidden node due to highly directional communication can also arise just like it used to happen in the case of WiFi standards. We can use the concept of Request to Send / Clear to Send (RTS/CTS) which was used in WiFi standards being a half-duplex communication. For 5G we will be using full-duplex clear-to-send (FCTS) instead of just the CTS which was used in WiFi i.e. a unidirectional communication. Figure 7 shows the channel allocation for communication between Node A and Node B. Firstly RTS is sent from Node A to check if there is the availability of the channel. After that there is a Short Interframe Space (SIFS) for which we need to wait for FCTS from Node B. Now being a bidirectional communication (Full-duplex) an FCTS is sent by Node A as wel l which makes it different from WiFi standards. After another SIFS interval, the channel is allocated, and there is a bi-directional communication between Node A and Node B. After the channel time allocated is complete, there is a small SIFS before ACK (Acknowledgement) which is kept and this ACK shows that the channel has been released [11]. Figure 7. Channel Allocation in Full Duplex 5G between Node A and Node B [11]. 5. Device-to-device communications in 5G: It is currently a part of LTE-A Release 12 of the 3gpp standards. Device to device (D2D) communication will be an inter-communication between the devices that will use 5G. There is no need to route the data from the 5G base station in D2D communication. The devices will use the same spectral resources as the 5G network. Thus, we must optimize the network to meet the requirement of the users. This will improve the spectral efficiency of the network and will increase the capacity as well. For D2D communication the devices should be in proximity. This can be very useful in case of Autonomous vehicles such as driverless cars which can communicate with each other and thus protect the passengers. D2D communication can occur in two ways. The first way is that one of the UE (User) can send a broadcast signal about its availability and what it can offer. The discoverer UE if interested in the characteristics of the broadcasting UE establishes a connection. The second way is that one of the UE will broadcast its requirements and the UE which meets these criteria can establish a connection with this UE [12]. IV. Conclusion This paper has shed light on the most recent enhancements taking place in 802.11ad and 5G. The paper has addressed the issue of spectral crunch and how these two technologies will cope up with this issue in the near future. The enhancements introduced in the paper have opened the way for the two technologies to interoperate such that the user can get 5G connectivity when outside and 802.11ad connectivity when inside their homes. Convergence of these two technologies will be made easy not just at the Physical level but at the MAC level too. At physical layer level, we have seen the use of mm-wave and directional beamforming, and at MAC layer level, we have seen full-duplex communication using RTS/CTS in 5G which will increase convergence.   Hence, the convergence of these two technologies will increase the capacity as a lot of unused spectrum will be released. V. References [1] T. Rappaport, S. Sun, R. Mayzus, and H. Zhao, Millimeter Wave Mobile Communications  for 5G Cellular: It Will Work! IEEE Access, pp. 335-349, 2013. [2] T. Nitsche et al., IEEE 802.11ad: Directional 60 GHz Communication for Multi-Gigabit-per-Second Wi-Fi, IEEE Commun. Mag., vol. 52, no. 12, Dec. 2014, pp. 132-41. [3] H. Shokri-Ghadikolaei, C. Fischione, P. Popovski, and M. Zorzi, Design aspects of short-range millimeter-wave networks: A MAC layer perspective, IEEE Netw., vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 88-96, May 2016. [4] V. Jungnickel, K. Manolakis, W. Zirwas, B. Panzner, V. Braun, M. Lossow, M. Sternad, R.  Apelfrojd and T. Svensson, The Role of Small Cells, Coordinated Multipoint, and Massive  MIMO in 5G, IEEE Commun. Mag., pp.44-51, May 2014.   [5] R. Van Nee, Breaking the Gigabit-per-second barrier with S02.11AC, IEEE Wireless Communications, vol. IS, pp. 4-4, April 2011. [6] S. Parkvall, et al., LTE-Advanced Evolving LTE Towards IMT-Advanced, in IEEE Proc.  Vehicular Technology Conference, Sept. 2008. [7] E. Perahia and M. X. Gong. Gigabit wireless lans: an overview of IEEE 802.11 ac and  802.11ad. ACM SIGMOBILE Mobile Computing and Communications Review, 15(3):23-33,  2011. [8] M.2083, Recommendation ITU-R, IMT Vision Framework and overall objectives of the  future development of IMT for 2020 and beyond, September 2015. [9] S. Chen, S. Sun, Q. Gao and X. Su, Adaptive Beamforming in TDD-Based Mobile  Communication Systems: State of the Art and 5G Research Directions, in IEEE Wireless  Communications, vol. 23, no. 6, pp. 81-87, December 2016. [10] X. Zhu, A. Doufexi, and T. Kocak, Throughput and coverage performance for IEEE  802.11ad millimeter-wave WPANs, in Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC Spring), 2011  IEEE 73rd, 2011, pp. 1-5. [11] X. Zhang, W. Cheng, and H. Zhang, Full-duplex transmission in PHY and MAC layers for  5g mobile wireless networks, Wireless Communications, IEEE, vol. 22, no. 5, pp. 112-121,  2015. [12] Z. Ma, Z. Zhang, Z. Ding, P. Fan, and H. Li, Key techniques for 5G wireless  communications: network architecture, physical layer, and MAC layer perspectives, Sci. China  Inf. Sci., vol. 58, no. 4, pp. 1-20, 2015.